Modules

Bibliography

The bibliography lists all references used in the online course. The View by Topic selection organizes the references sequentially by Module, Lesson, and subsections in the lessons. The View by Author lists the authors in alphabetical order.

Topics:
1.1. Epidemiology of HIV
1.1.1. Definitions for HIV Epidemiology Data
1.1.2. HIV Prevalence
1.1.3. New HIV Diagnoses
1.1.4. Undiagnosed HIV
1.1.5. HIV Incidence Estimates
1.1.6. Social Determinants of Health and HIV
1.1.7. Deaths in Persons with HIV
1.1.8. Global HIV Epidemiology
1.1.9. HIV-2
1.2. HIV Screening Recommendations
1.2.1. Background and Definitions
1.2.2. Rationale for Routine HIV Screening
1.2.3. CDC HIV Screening Recommendations
1.2.4. USPSTF HIV Screening Recommendations
1.2.5. Potential Barriers to Routine Screening
1.2.6. Partner Services
1.3. HIV Diagnostic Testing
1.3.1. Background
1.3.2. Timing of Laboratory Markers following HIV Infection
1.3.3. Tests Used for the Diagnosis of HIV
1.3.4. Laboratory HIV Testing Algorithm as Recommended by CDC/APHL
1.3.5. Performance of Diagnostic Tests
1.3.6. Special Diagnostic Situations
1.3.7. Delivering Test Results
1.4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection
1.4.1. Background and Definitions
1.4.2. Immunopathogenesis
1.4.3. Clinical Manifestations
1.4.4. Laboratory Diagnosis
1.4.5. Rationale for Treatment of Acute HIV Infection
1.4.6. Antiretroviral Treatment Recommendations for Acute HIV
1.4.A. Additional References
1.5. Linkage to HIV Care
1.5.1. Background and Goals
1.5.2. Process for Estimating and Monitoring Linkage to Care
1.5.3. Current State of Linkage to Care in the United States
1.5.4. Interventions to Improve Linkage to Care
1.5.5. Strategies for Clinics to Improve Linkage to Care
2.1. Initial Evaluation
2.1.1. Introduction
2.1.2. Staging and Classifying the Patient's HIV Disease
2.1.3. Initial Assessment: History Taking
2.1.4. Initial Evaluation: Physical Examination
2.1.5. Baseline Laboratory Studies
2.1.6. Immunizations
2.1.7. Summary Points
2.2. Oral Manifestations
2.2.1. Topic Overview
2.2.2. Oral Health and HIV
2.2.3. Oral Candidiasis
2.2.4. Oral Hairy Leukoplakia
2.2.5. Aphthous Stomatitis
2.2.6. Herpes Simplex Virus
2.2.7. Kaposi's Sarcoma
2.2.8. Human Papillomavirus-Related Oral Warts and Oral Cancer
2.2.9. Mpox
2.3. Cutaneous Manifestations
2.3.1. Introduction
2.3.2. Bacillary Angiomatosis
2.3.3. Cutaneous Drug Eruptions
2.3.4. Eosinophilic Folliculitis
2.3.5. Herpes Simplex Virus
2.3.6. Kaposi's Sarcoma
2.3.7. MRSA Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
2.3.8. Molluscum Contagiosum
2.3.9. Psoriasis
2.3.10. Scabies
2.3.11. Seborrheic Dermatitis
2.3.12. Herpes Zoster
2.3.13. Warts (Anogenital)
2.3.A. Additional References
2.4. Immunizations in Adults
2.4.1. Background
2.4.2. COVID-19 Vaccination
2.4.3. Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) Vaccines
2.4.4. Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) Vaccination
2.4.5. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Vaccination
2.4.6. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination
2.4.7. Influenza Vaccination
2.4.8. Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) Vaccination
2.4.9. Meningococcal Vaccination
2.4.10. Mpox Vaccination
2.4.11. Pneumococcal Vaccination
2.4.12. Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis (Tdap) Vaccination
2.4.13. Varicella Vaccination
2.4.14. Zoster Vaccination
2.4.15. Travel Vaccines
2.4.16. Contraindicated Vaccines
2.4.A. Additional References
2.5. Primary Care Management
2.5.-10. Obstructive Lung Disease
2.5.1. Topic Overview
2.5.2. Cancer Screening
2.5.3. Cardiovascular
2.5.4. Diabetes Mellitus
2.5.5. Hypertension
2.5.6. Hyperlipidemia
2.5.7. Osteoporosis
2.5.8. Renal Disease
2.5.9. Testosterone Deficiency
2.5.10. Tobacco Use and Smoking Cessation
2.6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions
2.6.1. Background
2.6.2. Estimates of Mental Health Conditions in Persons with HIV
2.6.3. Mental Health Conditions and Risk of HIV Acquisition and Transmission
2.6.4. Impact of Mental Health Conditions on HIV Outcomes
2.6.5. Benefit of Mental Health Care on HIV Outcomes
2.6.6. Neurocognitive Disorders in Persons Living with HIV
2.6.7. Overview of Screening Tools for Common Mental Health Conditions
2.6.8. Depression Screening Tools
2.6.9. Anxiety Disorder Screening Tools
2.6.10. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Screening Tools
2.6.11. Bipolar Disorder Screening Tool
2.6.12. Neurocognitive Screening Tools
2.6.13. Integrating Mental Health Screening into HIV Care
2.6.A. Additional References
2.7. Substance Use Disorders
2.7.1. Background
2.7.2. Screening for Substance Use Disorders
2.7.3. Epidemiology of Substance Use in United States
2.7.4. Substance Use Disorders in People with HIV
2.7.5. Alcohol Use Disorder
2.7.6. Cannabis Use Disorder
2.7.7. Hallucinogen Use Disorder
2.7.8. Opioid Use Disorder
2.7.9. Stimulant Use Disorder
2.7.10. Tobacco Use Disorder
2.8. Retention in HIV Care
2.8.1. Introduction and HIV Care Continuum
2.8.2. Evaluation of Retention in Care
2.8.3. Estimating Retention in HIV Medical Care in the United States
2.8.4. Factors the May Impact Rates of Retention in Care
2.8.5. Impact of Lower Rates of Retention in Care
2.8.6. Strategies for Improving Retention in HIV Medical Care
2.8.A. Additional References
3.1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy
3.1.-6. What Not to Use
3.1.1. Background
3.1.2. HIV Life Cycle and Antiretroviral Drug Targets
3.1.3. When to Initiate Antiretroviral Therapy
3.1.4. Antiretroviral Regimens for Initial Therapy
3.1.5. Choosing a Specific Antiretroviral Regimen
3.1.6. Monitoring Response to Antiretroviral Therapy
3.1.7. Poor CD4 Response to Antiretroviral Therapy
3.1.8. Discontinuation or Treatment Interruption
3.2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications
3.2.1. Introduction
3.2.2. Entry Inhibitors
3.2.3. Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors
3.2.4. Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
3.2.5. Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
3.2.6. Pharmacologic Boosters
3.2.7. Protease Inhibitors
3.2.8. Capsid Inhibitors
3.3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications
3.3.-3. Anticonvulsants
3.3.1. Overview
3.3.2. Acid Suppressive Therapy and Supplements
3.3.3. Antimycobacterials
3.3.4. Cardiovascular Medications
3.3.5. Corticosteroids
3.3.6. Hepatitis C Treatments
3.3.7. HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors (Statins)
3.3.8. Mental Health Medications
3.3.9. Opioid Agonist Therapy
3.3.10. Oral Anticoagulants and Antiplatelet Therapy
3.3.11. Phosphodiesterase Type 5 (PDE5) Inhibitors
3.3.12. Miscellaneous Interactions
3.3.A. Additional References
3.4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy
3.4.1. Principles of Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy
3.4.2. Switching to an Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor
3.4.3. Switching to a Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor
3.4.4. Within-Class Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Switches
3.4.5. Simplifying Therapy to An Oral Two-Drug Regimen
3.4.6. Simplifying Therapy to Injectable Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine
3.4.7. Simplifying Maintenance Therapy to Monotherapy
3.5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure
3.5.1. Introduction
3.5.2. Definition of Terms Related to Virologic Responses
3.5.3. Causes of Virologic Failure
3.5.4. Approach to Detectable HIV RNA Levels
3.5.5. HIV Drug Resistance Assays
3.5.6. Indications for HIV Drug-Resistance Testing
3.5.7. Interpretation of Drug-Resistance Assays
3.5.8. Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Resistance
3.5.9. Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Resistance
3.5.10. Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor Resistance
3.5.11. Protease Inhibitor Resistance
3.5.12. Entry Inhibitor Resistance
3.5.13. Capsid Inhibitors
3.5.14. General Approach to Management of Virologic Failure
4.1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection
4.1.1. Background
4.1.2. Rationale and Indications for LTBI Screening
4.1.3. Methods Used to Test for Latent Tuberculosis
4.1.4. Recommended LTBI Testing in Persons with HIV
4.1.5. Evaluation of Persons with a Positive LTBI Screening Test
4.1.6. Management of LTBI in Persons with HIV
4.1.7. Considerations in Special Populations
4.1.A. Additional References
4.2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention
4.2.1. Background and Overview
4.2.2. Pneumocystis Pneumonia
4.2.3. Toxoplasma Encephalitis
4.2.4. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium Complex
4.2.5. Cryptococcal Meningitis
4.2.6. Cytomegalovirus
4.2.7. Histoplasmosis
4.2.8. Coccidioidomycosis
4.3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment
4.3.1. Background
4.3.2. Pneumocystis Pneumonia
4.3.3. Toxoplasma gondii Encephalitis
4.3.4. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium Complex Disease
4.3.5. Cryptococcosis
4.3.6. Cytomegalovirus Disease
4.3.7. Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
4.3.8. Esophageal Candidiasis
4.3.9. Histoplasmosis
4.3.10. Bartonella
4.3.11. Coccidiomycosis
4.3.12. Cryptosporidiosis
4.3.13. Microsporidiosis
4.3.14. Cystoisosporiasis (formerly Isosporiasis)
4.4. Sexually Transmitted Infections
4.4.1. Overview
4.4.2. Gonococcal Infections
4.4.3. Chlamydial Infections
4.4.4. Lymphogranuloma Venereum
4.4.5. Syphilis
4.4.6. Chancroid
4.4.7. Genital Herpes
4.4.8. Human Papillomavirus and Anogenital Warts
4.4.9. Trichomoniasis
4.4.10. Additional Topics
4.5. Hepatitis B Coinfection
4.5.1. Background
4.5.2. Screening for HBV in Persons with HIV
4.5.3. Initial Evaluation of Persons with HBV and HIV Coinfection
4.5.4. Treatment of HBV and HIV in Persons with HIV and HBV Coinfection
4.5.5. Monitoring HBV Treatment Response
4.5.6. Management of HIV or HBV Virologic Failure
4.5.7. Stopping HBV Treatment and Hepatic Flares
4.5.8. HBV-Related Immune Reconstitution Syndrome (HBV-IRIS)
4.5.9. Hepatitis D Virus
4.5.10. Preventing HBV Perinatal Transmission
4.5.11. Surveillance for Hepatocellular Carcinoma
4.5.12. Managing Persons with Coinfection and Advanced Liver Disease
4.5.A. Additional References
4.6. Hepatitis C Coinfection
4.6.1. Background and Epidemiology
4.6.2. Natural History of HIV-HCV Coinfection
4.6.3. Screening for HCV Infection
4.6.4. HCV Diagnostic Testing
4.6.5. Evaluation of Persons Diagnosed with HCV Coinfection
4.6.6. Treatment of HIV in Persons with HCV Coinfection
4.6.7. Treatment of HCV in Persons with HIV Coinfection
4.6.8. Monitoring and Management of Chronic Liver Disease
4.6.9. Special Considerations During Pregnancy
5.1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission
5.1.1. Overview
5.1.2. HIV Testing During Pregnancy
5.1.3. Antepartum Management
5.1.4. Intrapartum Management
5.1.5. Acute HIV in Pregnancy and in the Postpartum Period
5.1.6. Management of the Infant Exposed to HIV
5.1.7. Postpartum Follow-Up for People with HIV
5.1.A. Additional References
5.2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV
5.2.1. Introduction and Background
5.2.2. Antiretroviral Treatment as Prevention
5.2.3. Knowledge of HIV Status
5.2.4. Behavioral Prevention Interventions for Persons with HIV
5.2.5. Importance of Diagnosing and Treating Acute HIV Infection
5.2.6. Screening and Treatment of Sexually Transmitted Infections
5.2.7. Circumcision
5.2.8. Prevention Strategies in Persons with Substance Use
5.2.A. Additional References
5.3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis
5.3.1. Introduction
5.3.2. Rationale for Occupational HIV PEP
5.3.3. Risk Assessment of the Occupational Exposure Event
5.3.4. Recommended Initial Steps Following An Exposure Event
5.3.5. Recommended Antiretroviral Regimens for Occupational HIV PEP
5.3.7. Baseline Evaluation and Counseling for Health Care Worker
5.3.8. Follow-Up of Health Care Worker After Exposure Event
5.4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis
5.4.1. Introduction and Background
5.4.2. Rationale for Providing Nonoccupational HIV PEP
5.4.3. Evaluation for Nonoccupational HIV PEP
5.4.5. Recommended Therapy for Nonoccupational HIV PEP
5.4.7. Laboratory Testing for Source and Exposed Persons
5.4.8. Nonoccupational HIV PEP in Special Populations and Circumstances
5.4.9. Initial Medication Prescription and Follow-up after Evaluation
5.4.10. Transitioning from Nonoccupational HIV PEP to HIV PrEP
5.4.11. Concerns with Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis
5.5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)
5.5.1. Introduction
5.5.2. Persons to Consider for HIV PrEP
5.5.3. Recommended Regimens and Dosing for HIV PrEP
5.5.4. Baseline Laboratory Evaluation, Immunizations, and Counseling
5.5.5. Major HIV PrEP Studies
5.5.6. Time to Achieve Protection after Initiating HIV PrEP
5.5.7. Impact of Adherence on Efficacy of HIV PrEP
5.5.8. Laboratory Monitoring on HIV PrEP
5.5.9. Acquisition of HIV in the Setting of HIV PrEP
5.5.10. HIV PrEP and Development of HIV Drug Resistance
5.5.11. Adverse Effects of Medications Used for HIV PrEP
5.5.12. Changes in Sexual Practices Among Persons Receiving HIV PrEP
5.5.13. Discontinuing PrEP
5.5.14. Transitioning from Nonoccupational HIV PEP to HIV PrEP
5.5.15. Disparities in HIV PrEP Use
5.5.16. Future HIV PrEP Medications
6.1. HIV in Infants and Children
6.1.1. Introduction
6.1.2. Epidemiology of HIV in Children Younger than Age 13
6.1.3. Staging of Pediatric HIV Disease
6.1.4. Diagnosis of HIV in Infants and Children
6.1.5. Clinical and Laboratory Monitoring
6.1.6. Antiretroviral Treatment for Children with HIV
6.1.7. Immunizations for Children Living with HIV
6.1.8. Opportunistic Infections in Children
6.2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults
6.2.1. Introduction
6.2.2. Epidemiology of HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults
6.2.3. Testing, Linkage to Care, and Retention in Care
6.2.4. Clinical and Laboratory Monitoring
6.2.5. Antiretroviral Therapy for Adolescents with HIV
6.2.6. Adherence with Antiretroviral Therapy
6.2.7. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) for Adolescents
6.2.8. Immunizations for Adolescents with HIV
6.2.9. Adolescent Sexuality, Gender, and Reproductive Health
6.2.10. Special Considerations for Youth with Perinatal HIV
6.2.11. Transitioning to Adult Care
6.2.A. Additional References
6.3. HIV in Women
6.3.1. Background
6.3.2. HIV Epidemiology in Women
6.3.3. Antiretroviral Therapy in Women
6.3.4. Contraception in Women with HIV
6.3.5. Contraception Considerations for Women at Risk for HIV
6.3.6. Serodifferent Couples Desiring Pregnancy
6.3.7. Vaginitis in Women with HIV
6.3.8. Gender-Based Violence and Women with HIV
6.3.9. Menopause in Women with HIV
6.4. HIV in Older Adults
6.4.1. Background
6.4.2. Accelerated versus Accentuated Aging
6.4.3. Epidemiology of HIV in Older Persons
6.4.4. Screening and Detection of HIV in Older Adults
6.4.5. Antiretroviral Therapy in the Older Patient with HIV
6.4.6. Common Comorbid Conditions in Older Persons with HIV
6.4.7. Life Expectancy, Age of Death, and Advanced Care Planning
6.4.A. Additional References
6.5. HIV and Corrections
6.5.1. Overview of United States Correctional System
6.5.2. Epidemiology and Prevention of HIV in Correctional Setting
6.5.3. HIV Testing in the Correctional Setting
6.5.4. HIV Medical Care in Correctional Settings
6.5.5. Antiretroviral Therapy in the Correctional Setting
6.5.6. HIV Care Cascade and Outcomes in the Correctional Setting
6.5.7. Maintaining Confidentiality in the Correctional Setting
6.5.8. Chronic Medical Conditions Among Persons with HIV who are Incarcerated
6.5.9. Transition from the Correctional Setting to the Community
6.5.10. Community Corrections
6.6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations
6.6.1. Introduction
6.6.2. HIV Epidemiology In United States by Race/Ethnicity
6.6.3. Comparison of HIV Diagnosis and Care by Race/Ethnicity
6.6.4. HIV PrEP Coverage by Race/Ethnicity
6.6.5. Health Outcomes and Death by Race/Ethnicity
6.6.6. Factors Associated with Health Inequities
6.6.7. Future Directions for Reducing HIV-Related Disparities
6.7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations
6.7.1. Background
6.7.2. Terminology
6.7.3. Medical Care for LGBT Persons
6.7.4. Cisgender Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM)
6.7.5. Cisgender Women Who Have Sex with Women (WSW)
6.7.6. Transgender Women
6.7.7. Transgender Men
6.7.A. Additional References
6.8. HIV-2 Infection
6.8.1. Background
6.8.3. Pathogenesis, Transmission, and Natural History of HIV-2
6.8.4. 2014 Surveillance Case Definition for HIV-2 Infection
6.8.5. Diagnostic Testing for HIV-2
6.8.6. Antiretroviral Susceptibility and Resistance
6.8.7. HIV-2 Treatment Studies
6.8.8. HIV-2 Treatment Recommendations

Module 1. Screening and Diagnosis

Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

Definitions for HIV Epidemiology Data

Adler NE, Newman K. Socioeconomic disparities in health: pathways and policies. Health Aff (Millwood). 2002;21:60-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Althoff KN, Gange SJ, Klein MB, et al. Late presentation for human immunodeficiency virus care in the United States and Canada. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1512-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

HIV Prevalence

Angell M. How much will health care reform cost? N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1778-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradley H, Hall HI, Wolitski RJ, et al. Vital Signs: HIV diagnosis, care, and treatment among persons living with HIV--United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1113-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Burns DN, DeGruttola V, Pilcher CD, et al. Toward an endgame: finding and engaging people unaware of their HIV-1 infection in treatment and prevention. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2014;30:217-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Campsmith ML, Rhodes PH, Hall HI, Green TA. Undiagnosed HIV prevalence among adults and adolescents in the United States at the end of 2006. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;53:619-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015; vol. 27:1-114. Published November 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2012. HIV Surveillance Report. 2012;vol. 24:1-83. Published November 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2016. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 1):1-89. Published February 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2014. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2016;21(No. 4):1-87. Published July 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas--2011. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2013;18(No. 5):1-47. Published October 2013.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas--2013. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2015;20(No. 2):1-70. Published July 2015.

CDC»

Hall HI, An Q, Tang T, et al. Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:657-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

New HIV Diagnoses

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015; vol. 27:1-114. Published November 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Report, 2017; vol. 29:1-129. Published November 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2019. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 32:1-123. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2012. HIV Surveillance Report. 2012;vol. 24:1-83. Published November 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV incidence in the United States, 2007–2010. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2012;17(No. 4):1-26. Published December 2012.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rates of diagnoses of HIV infection among adults and adolescents, by area of residence, 2011—United States and 6 dependent areas. HIV Surveillance Report. 2011;vol 23:1-84. Published February 2013.

CDC»

Fact sheet: estimates of new HIV infections in the United States, 2007-2010. Published December 2012.

CDC»

Hall HI, Song R, Rhodes P, et al. Estimation of HIV incidence in the United States. JAMA. 2008;300:520-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Karon JM, Song R, Brookmeyer R, Kaplan EH, Hall HI. Estimating HIV incidence in the United States from HIV/AIDS surveillance data and biomarker HIV test results. Stat Med. 2008;27:4617-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Lansky A, Brooks JT, DiNenno E, Heffelfinger J, Hall HI, Mermin J. Epidemiology of HIV in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55 Suppl 2:S64-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Palella FJ Jr, Baker RK, Moorman AC, et al. Mortality in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era: changing causes of death and disease in the HIV outpatient study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:27–34.

PubMed Abstract»

Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Prejean J, Song R, Hernandez A, et al. Estimated HIV Incidence in the United States, 2006-2009. PLoS One. 2011;6:e17502.

PubMed Abstract»

Purcell DW, Johnson CH, Lansky A, et al. Estimating the population size of men who have sex with men in the United States to obtain HIV and syphilis rates. Open AIDS J. 2012;6:98-107.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

Undiagnosed HIV

Althoff KN, Gange SJ, Klein MB, et al. Late presentation for human immunodeficiency virus care in the United States and Canada. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1512-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradley H, Hall HI, Wolitski RJ, et al. Vital Signs: HIV diagnosis, care, and treatment among persons living with HIV--United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1113-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Burns DN, DeGruttola V, Pilcher CD, et al. Toward an endgame: finding and engaging people unaware of their HIV-1 infection in treatment and prevention. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2014;30:217-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Campsmith ML, Rhodes PH, Hall HI, Green TA. Undiagnosed HIV prevalence among adults and adolescents in the United States at the end of 2006. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;53:619-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015; vol. 27:1-114. Published November 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas--2011. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2013;18(No. 5):1-47. Published October 2013.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 4):1-51. Published June 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: HIV testing and diagnosis among adults--United States, 2001-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:1550-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen M, Rhodes PH, Hall IH, Kilmarx PH, Branson BM, Valleroy LA. Prevalence of undiagnosed HIV infection among persons aged ≥13 years--National HIV Surveillance System, United States, 2005-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61 Suppl:57-64.

MMWR»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Hoffman IF, Royce RA, et al. Reduction of concentration of HIV-1 in semen after treatment of urethritis: implications for prevention of sexual transmission of HIV-1. AIDSCAP Malawi Research Group. Lancet. 1997;349:1868-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Fenton KA. Changing epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the United States: implications for enhancing and promoting HIV testing strategies. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S213-20.

PubMed Abstract»

George N, Green J, Murphy S. Sexually transmitted disease rates before and after HIV testing. Int J STD AIDS. 1998;9:291-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, An Q, Tang T, et al. Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:657-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Holtgrave DR, Maulsby C. HIV transmission rates from persons living with HIV who are aware and unaware of their infection. AIDS. 2012;26:893-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Kay ES, Batey DS, Mugavero MJ. The HIV treatment cascade and care continuum: updates, goals, and recommendations for the future. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:35.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks G, Crepaz N, Janssen RS. Estimating sexual transmission of HIV from persons aware and unaware that they are infected with the virus in the USA. AIDS. 2006;20:1447-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks G, Crepaz N, Senterfitt JW, Janssen RS. Meta-analysis of high-risk sexual behavior in persons aware and unaware they are infected with HIV in the United States: implications for HIV prevention programs. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;39:446-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Noor SW, Ross MW, Lai D, Risser JM. Drug and sexual HIV risk behaviours related to knowledge of HIV serostatus among injection drug users in Houston, Texas. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:89-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Otten MW Jr, Zaidi AA, Wroten JE, Witte JJ, Peterman TA. Changes in sexually transmitted disease rates after HIV testing and posttest counseling, Miami, 1988 to 1989. Am J Public Health. 1993;83:529-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Quinn TC. Association of sexually transmitted diseases and infection with the human immunodeficiency virus: biological cofactors and markers of behavioural interventions. Int J STD AIDS. 1996;7 Suppl 2:17-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Skarbinski J, Rosenberg E, Paz-Bailey G, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission at each step of the care continuum in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:588-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

HIV Incidence Estimates

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV incidence in the United States, 2007–2010. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2012;17(No. 4):1-26. Published December 2012.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control. HIV surveillance--United States, 1981-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:689-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Song R, Rhodes P, et al. Estimation of HIV incidence in the United States. JAMA. 2008;300:520-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Song R, Tang T, et al. HIV Trends in the United States: Diagnoses and Estimated Incidence. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2017;3:e8.

PubMed Abstract»

Prejean J, Song R, Hernandez A, et al. Estimated HIV Incidence in the United States, 2006-2009. PLoS One. 2011;6:e17502.

PubMed Abstract»

Song R, Hall HI, Green TA, Szwarcwald CL, Pantazis N. Using CD4 Data to Estimate HIV Incidence, Prevalence, and Percent of Undiagnosed Infections in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;74:3-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

Social Determinants of Health and HIV

Adler NE, Newman K. Socioeconomic disparities in health: pathways and policies. Health Aff (Millwood). 2002;21:60-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Angell M. How much will health care reform cost? N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1778-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Social determinants of health among adults with diagnosed HIV in 11 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, 2013. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 2015;20(No. 5):1-38. Published November 2015.

CDC»

Gupta GR, Parkhurst JO, Ogden JA, Aggleton P, Mahal A. Structural approaches to HIV prevention. Lancet. 2008;372:764-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Williams DR, Jackson PB. Social sources of racial disparities in health. Health Aff (Millwood). 2005;24:325-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

Deaths in Persons with HIV

Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Causes of death in HIV-1-infected patients treated with antiretroviral therapy, 1996-2006: collaborative analysis of 13 HIV cohort studies. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1387-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Age-adjusted death rates for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease, by race and sex -- United States, 1987-2006. 2008;57:830.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015; vol. 27:1-114. Published November 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Report, 2017; vol. 29:1-129. Published November 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2019. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 32:1-123. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2012. HIV Surveillance Report. 2012;vol. 24:1-83. Published November 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control. HIV surveillance--United States, 1981-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:689-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Ingle SM, May MT, Gill MJ, et al. Impact of risk factors for specific causes of death in the first and subsequent years of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:287-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

Trickey A, May MT, Vehreschild J, et al. Cause-Specific Mortality in HIV-Positive Patients Who Survived Ten Years after Starting Antiretroviral Therapy. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0160460.

PubMed Abstract»

Weber R, Sabin CA, Friis-Møller N, et al. Liver-related deaths in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: the D:A:D study. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1632-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

Global HIV Epidemiology

Angell M. How much will health care reform cost? N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1778-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation. The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic.

Kaiser Foundation»

Mathers BM, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, et al. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. Lancet. 2008;372:1733-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor BS, Sobieszczyk ME, McCutchan FE, Hammer SM. The challenge of HIV-1 subtype diversity. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1590-602.

PubMed Abstract»

UNAIDS 2014 Gap Report.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. Data 2020.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. Fact Sheet. 2023.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. Get on the fast track: the life-cycle approach to HIV. Published November 21, 2016.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. Global AIDS Update 2013: the UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. Global AIDS Update 2016: the UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic.

UNAIDS»

World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository. Antiretroviral therapy coverage: estimates by WHO region.

WHO»

Module 1 » Lesson 1. Epidemiology of HIV

HIV-2

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV-2 Infection Surveillance--United States, 1987-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:985-8.

PubMed Abstract»

da Silva ZJ, Oliveira I, Andersen A, et al. Changes in prevalence and incidence of HIV-1, HIV-2 and dual infections in urban areas of Bissau, Guinea-Bissau: is HIV-2 disappearing? AIDS. 2008;22:1195-202.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Brien TR, George JR, Epstein JS, Holmberg SD, Schochetman G. Testing for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992;41:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al. Trends in HIV-2 Diagnoses and Use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 Differentiation Test - United States, 2010-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:63-6.

PubMed Abstract»

UNAIDS. Data 2020.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. HIV/AIDS. Data and statistics: 2022.

UNAIDS»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring Selected National HIV Prevention and Care Objectives by Using HIV Surveillance Data—United States and 6 Dependent Areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(No. 4). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Smith MK, Muessig KE, Hallett TB, Powers KA, Kashuba AD. Antiretroviral treatment of HIV-1 prevents transmission of HIV-1: where do we go from here? Lancet. 2013;382:1515-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS. Changing HIV epidemics: what HIV-2 can teach us about ending HIV-1. AIDS. 2013;27:135-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Hemelaar J. The origin and diversity of the HIV-1 pandemic. Trends Mol Med. 2012;18:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Johnson P, Wheat LJ, Cloud G, et al. Safety and efficacy of liposomal amphotericin B compared with conventional amphotericin B for induction therapy of histoplasmosis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:105-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Ogbuanu IU, Torres ME, Kettinger L, Albrecht H, Duffus WA. Epidemiological characterization of individuals with newly reported HIV infection: South Carolina, 2004-2005. Am J Public Health. 2007;99 Suppl 1:S111-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Histoplasmosis. Last updated: September 13, 2019.

HIV.gov»

van Leth F, Phanuphak P, Ruxrungtham K, et al. Comparison of first-line antiretroviral therapy with regimens including nevirapine, efavirenz, or both drugs, plus stavudine and lamivudine: a randomised open-label trial, the 2NN Study. Lancet. 2004;363(9417):1253-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheat J, Hafner R, Korzun AH, et al. Itraconazole treatment of disseminated histoplasmosis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS Clinical Trial Group. Am J Med. 1995;98:336-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheat LJ, Freifeld AG, Kleiman MB, Baddley JW, McKinsey DS, Loyd JE, Kauffman CA; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:807-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 2. HIV Screening Recommendations

Module 1 » Lesson 2. HIV Screening Recommendations

Background and Definitions

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM. State of the art for diagnosis of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S221-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Public Health Service guidelines for counseling and antibody testing to prevent HIV infection and AIDS. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1987;36:509-15.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Advancing HIV prevention: new strategies for a changing epidemic--United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003;52:329-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for HIV testing services for inpatients and outpatients in acute-care hospital settings. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1993;42:1-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised recommendations for HIV screening of pregnant women. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2001;50:63-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Pitasi MA, Delaney KP, Oraka E, et al. Interval Since Last HIV Test for Men and Women with Recent Risk for HIV Infection - United States, 2006-2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:677-681.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 2. HIV Screening Recommendations

Rationale for Routine HIV Screening

Bradley H, Hall HI, Wolitski RJ, et al. Vital Signs: HIV diagnosis, care, and treatment among persons living with HIV--United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1113-7.

MMWR»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, Janssen RS, Taylor AW, Lyss SB, Clark JE; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55(RR-14):1-17.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control. HIV surveillance--United States, 1981-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:689-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Chou R, Huffman LH, Fu R, Smits AK, Korthuis PT. Screening for HIV: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2005;143:55-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Holtgrave DR, Maulsby C. HIV transmission rates from persons living with HIV who are aware and unaware of their infection. AIDS. 2012;26:893-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Kitahata MM, Gange SJ, Abraham AG, et al. Effect of early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy for HIV on survival. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1815-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Long EF, Brandeau ML, Owens DK. The cost-effectiveness and population outcomes of expanded HIV screening and antiretroviral treatment in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:778-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks G, Crepaz N, Janssen RS. Estimating sexual transmission of HIV from persons aware and unaware that they are infected with the virus in the USA. AIDS. 2006;20:1447-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Amico KR, Horn T, Thompson MA. The state of engagement in HIV care in the United States: from cascade to continuum to control. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1164-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Paltiel AD, Weinstein MC, Kimmel AD, et al. Expanded screening for HIV in the United States--an analysis of cost-effectiveness. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:586-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodger AJ, Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al. Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study. Lancet. 2019;393:2428-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodger AJ, Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al. Sexual Activity Without Condoms and Risk of HIV Transmission in Serodifferent Couples When the HIV-Positive Partner Is Using Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy. JAMA. 2016;316:171-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 2. HIV Screening Recommendations

CDC HIV Screening Recommendations

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). State HIV Testing Laws: Consent and Counseling Requirements.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Daar ES, Little S, Pitt J, et al. Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Los Angeles County Primary HIV Infection Recruitment Network. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:25-9.

PubMed Abstract»

DiNenno EA, Prejean J, Delaney KP, et al. Evaluating the Evidence for More Frequent Than Annual HIV Screening of Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex With Men in the United States: Results From a Systematic Review and CDC Expert Consultation. Public Health Rep. 2018;133:3-21.

PubMed Abstract»

DiNenno EA, Prejean J, Irwin K, et al. Recommendations for HIV Screening of Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:830-832.

PubMed Abstract»

Ehrenkranz PD, Pagán JA, Begier EM, Linas BP, Madison K, Armstrong K. Written informed-consent statutes and HIV testing. Am J Prev Med. 2009;37:57-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Neff S, Goldschmidt R. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2006 human immunodeficiency virus testing recommendations and state testing laws. JAMA. 2011;305:1767-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim S, Taylor A, Lampe MA, et al. A framework for elimination of perinatal transmission of HIV in the United States. Pediatrics. 2012;130:738-44.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Maternal HIV testing and identification of perinatal HIV exposure January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Williams B, Costello M, McHugh E, et al. Repeat antenatal HIV testing in the third trimester: a study of feasibility and maternal uptake rates. HIV Med. 2013;15:362-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Wing C. Effects of written informed consent requirements on HIV testing rates: evidence from a natural experiment. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:1087-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Zetola NM, Grijalva CG, Gertler S, et al. Simplifying consent for HIV testing is associated with an increase in HIV testing and case detection in highest risk groups, San Francisco January 2003-June 2007. PLoS One. 2008;3:e2591.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 2. HIV Screening Recommendations

USPSTF HIV Screening Recommendations

Bayer R, Oppenheimer GM. Routine HIV testing, public health, and the USPSTF—an end to the debate. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:881-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Chou R, Cantor AG, Zakher B, Bougatsos C. Screening for HIV in pregnant women: systematic review to update the 2005 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157:719-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Chou R, Huffman LH, Fu R, Smits AK, Korthuis PT. Screening for HIV: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2005;143:55-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Chou R, Selph S, Dana T, et al. Screening for HIV: systematic review to update the 2005 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157:706-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Martin EG, Schackman BR. Updating the HIV-testing guidelines--a modest change with major consequences. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:884-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for HIV: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159:51-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Owens DK, Davidson KW, Krist AH, et al. Screening for HIV Infection: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2019;321:2326-36.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for HIV: recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2005;143:32-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 2. HIV Screening Recommendations

Potential Barriers to Routine Screening

Arya M, Zheng MY, Amspoker AB, et al. In the Routine HIV Testing Era, Primary Care Physicians in Community Health Centers Remain Unaware of HIV Testing Recommendations. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2014;13:296-299.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Burke RC, Sepkowitz KA, Bernstein KT, Karpati AM, Myers JE, Tsoi BW, Begier EM. Why don't physicians test for HIV? A review of the US literature. AIDS. 2007;21:1617-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV and STD Criminal Laws.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). State HIV Testing Laws: Consent and Counseling Requirements.

CDC»

Colfax GN, Lehman JS, Bindman AB, et al. What happened to home HIV test collection kits? Intent to use kits, actual use, and barriers to use among persons at risk for HIV infection. AIDS Care. 2002;14:675-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Ehrenkranz PD, Pagán JA, Begier EM, Linas BP, Madison K, Armstrong K. Written informed-consent statutes and HIV testing. Am J Prev Med. 2009;37:57-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Inungu JN. Potential barriers to seeking human immunodeficiency virus testing among adults in the United States: data from the 1998 National Health Interview Survey. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2002;16:293-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Irwin KL, Valdiserri RO, Holmberg SD. The acceptability of voluntary HIV antibody testing in the United States: a decade of lessons learned. AIDS. 1996;10:1707-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Jain CL, Wyatt CM, Burke R, Sepkowitz K, Begier EM. Knowledge of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2006 routine HIV testing recommendations among New York City internal medicine residents. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:167-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Lehman JS, Carr MH, Nichol AJ, et al. Prevalence and public health implications of state laws that criminalize potential HIV exposure in the United States. AIDS Behav. 2014;18:997-1006.

PubMed Abstract»

LeMessurier J, Traversy G, Varsaneux O, et al. Risk of sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus with antiretroviral therapy, suppressed viral load and condom use: a systematic review. CMAJ. 2018;190:E1350-E1360.

PubMed Abstract»

Long EF, Brandeau ML, Owens DK. The cost-effectiveness and population outcomes of expanded HIV screening and antiretroviral treatment in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:778-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Magno L, Pereira M, de Castro CT, et al. HIV Testing Strategies, Types of Tests, and Uptake by Men Who have Sex with Men and Transgender Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. AIDS Behav. 2023;27:678-707.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Paltiel AD, Weinstein MC, Kimmel AD, et al. Expanded screening for HIV in the United States--an analysis of cost-effectiveness. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:586-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Sanders GD, Bayoumi AM, Sundaram V, et al. Cost-effectiveness of screening for HIV in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2005 Feb 10;352:570-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Spielberg F, Branson BM, Goldbaum GM, et al. Overcoming barriers to HIV testing: preferences for new strategies among clients of a needle exchange, a sexually transmitted disease clinic, and sex venues for men who have sex with men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;32:318-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Wing C. Effects of written informed consent requirements on HIV testing rates: evidence from a natural experiment. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:1087-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Zheng MY, Suneja A, Chou AL, Arya M. Physician barriers to successful implementation of US Preventive Services Task Force routine HIV testing recommendations. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2014;13:200-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 2. HIV Screening Recommendations

Partner Services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Partner Services for HIV and STDs. A Guide for Health Care Providers.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Effective Interventions—HIV Prevention that Works: Partner Services.

CDC and Prevention»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for partner services programs for HIV infection, syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydial infection. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008;57:1-83.

MMWR»

Hogben M, McNally T, McPheeters M, Hutchinson AB. The effectiveness of HIV partner counseling and referral services in increasing identification of HIV-positive individuals a systematic review. Am J Prev Med. 2007;33:S89-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Landis SE, Schoenbach VJ, Weber DJ, et al. Results of a randomized trial of partner notification in cases of HIV infection in North Carolina. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:101-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

de Wet N, Llanos-Cuentas A, Suleiman J, et al. A randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, dose-response study of micafungin compared with fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in HIV-positive patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:842-9.

PubMed Abstract»

DeJesus E, Ruane P, McDonald C, et al. Impact of switching virologically suppressed, HIV-1-infected patients from twice-daily fixed-dose zidovudine/lamivudine to once-daily fixed-dose tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine. HIV Clin Trials. 2008;9:103-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Krause DS, Simjee AE, van Rensburg C, et al. A randomized, double-blind trial of anidulafungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:770-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pringle K, Merchant RC, Clark MA. Is self-perceived HIV risk congruent with reported HIV risk among traditionally lower HIV risk and prevalence adult emergency department patients? Implications for HIV testing. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2013;27:573-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Skiest DJ, Vazquez JA, Anstead GM, et al. Posaconazole for the treatment of azole-refractory oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in subjects with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:607-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Tributino A, Montgomery MC, Bertrand T, et al. Partner notification outcomes after integration of an on-site disease intervention specialist at a sexually transmitted disease clinic. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0194041.

PubMed Abstract»

White BL, Walsh J, Rayasam S, Pathman DE, Adimora AA, Golin CE. What Makes Me Screen for HIV? Perceived Barriers and Facilitators to Conducting Recommended Routine HIV Testing among Primary Care Physicians in the Southeastern United States. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2015;14:127-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Zulliger R, Maulsby C, Solomon L, et al. Cost-utility of HIV Testing Programs Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in the United States. AIDS Behav. 2017;21:619-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Module 1 » Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Background

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. 2018 Quick reference guide: Recommended laboratory HIV testing algorithm for serum or plasma specimens. Published January 27, 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2018–2022. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2024;29(No. 1):1-131. Published May 2024.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Issue Brief: Status Neutral HIV Care and Service Delivery Eliminating Stigma and Reducing Health Disparities.

CDC»

Cheever LW. Engaging HIV-infected patients in care: their lives depend on it. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1500-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Hollingsworth TD, Anderson RM, Fraser C. HIV-1 transmission, by stage of infection. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:687-93.

PubMed Abstract»

INSIGHT START Study Group, Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, Gordin F, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:795-807.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, Gordin F, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:795-807.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Pinkerton SD. How many sexually-acquired HIV infections in the USA are due to acute-phase HIV transmission? AIDS. 2007;21:1625-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Prabhu VS, Hutchinson AB, Farnham PG, Sansom SL. Sexually acquired HIV infections in the United States due to acute-phase HIV transmission: an update. AIDS. 2009;23:1792-4.

PubMed Abstract»

TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group, Danel C, Moh R, et al. A Trial of Early Antiretrovirals and Isoniazid Preventive Therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:808-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Timing of Laboratory Markers following HIV Infection

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Fiebig EW, Wright DJ, Rawal BD, et al. Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2003;17:1871-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Masciotra S, McDougal JS, Feldman J, Sprinkle P, Wesolowski L, Owen SM. Evaluation of an alternative HIV diagnostic algorithm using specimens from seroconversion panels and persons with established HIV infections. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S17-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Owen SM, Yang C, Spira T, et al. Alternative algorithms for human immunodeficiency virus infection diagnosis using tests that are licensed in the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:1588-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in special patient populations: early (acute and recent) HIV infection. December 6, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Sivay MV, Li M, Piwowar-Manning E, et al. Characterization of HIV Seroconverters in a TDF/FTC PrEP Study: HPTN 067/ADAPT. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:271-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Tests Used for the Diagnosis of HIV

Abbott Diagnostics. Determine HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo.

Abbott Diagnostics»

Bentsen C, McLaughlin L, Mitchell E, et al. Performance evaluation of the Bio-Rad Laboratories GS HIV Combo Ag/Ab EIA, a 4th generation HIV assay for the simultaneous detection of HIV p24 antigen and antibodies to HIV-1 (groups M and O) and HIV-2 in human serum or plasma. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S57-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Mermin J. Establishing the diagnosis of HIV infection: new tests and a new algorithm for the United States. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S3-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM. Home sample collection tests for HIV infection. JAMA. 1998;280:1699-701.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM. State of the art for diagnosis of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S221-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Carballo-Diéguez A, Frasca T, Dolezal C, Balan I. Will gay and bisexually active men at high risk of infection use over-the-counter rapid HIV tests to screen sexual partners? J Sex Res. 2012;49:379-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Interpretation and use of the Western blot assay for serodiagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infections. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1989;38(Suppl 7):1-7.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV Testing Technologies: CLIA-Waived Rapid HIV Tests.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Technical Update on HIV-1/2 Differentiation Assays. August 12, 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Advancing HIV prevention: new strategies for a changing epidemic--United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003;52:329-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Advantages and disadvantages of FDA-approved HIV immunoassays used for screening by generation and platform.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: US Public Health Service: Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2021 Update: a clinical practice guideline. December 2021:1-108.

CDC»

Chavez P, Wesolowski L, Patel P, Delaney K, Owen SM. Evaluation of the performance of the Abbott ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo Assay. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S51-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Daskalakis D. HIV diagnostic testing: evolving technology and testing strategies. Top Antivir Med. 2011;19:18-22.

PubMed Abstract»

De Paschale M, Manco MT, Cianflone A, et al. Evaluation of the vitros hiv combo 4th generation test for the identification of HIV infections. J Clin Virol. 2018;108:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Delaney KP, Branson BM, Uniyal A, et al. Performance of an oral fluid rapid HIV-1/2 test: experience from four CDC studies. AIDS. 2006;20:1655-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Delaney KP, Hanson DL, Masciotra S, Ethridge SF, Wesolowski L, Owen SM. Time Until Emergence of HIV Test Reactivity Following Infection With HIV-1: Implications for Interpreting Test Results and Retesting After Exposure. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:53-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Delaney KP, Wesolowski LG, Owen SM. The Evolution of HIV Testing Continues. Sex Transm Dis. 2017;44:747-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Duong YT, Mavengere Y, Patel H, et al. Poor performance of the determine HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo fourth-generation rapid test for detection of acute infections in a National Household Survey in Swaziland. J Clin Microbiol. 2014;52:3743-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Eshleman SH, Khaki L, Laeyendecker O, et al. Detection of individuals with acute HIV-1 infection using the ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;52:121-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernández McPhee C, Álvarez P, Prieto L, et al. HIV-1 infection using dried blood spots can be confirmed by Bio-Rad Geenius™ HIV 1/2 confirmatory assay. J Clin Virol. 2015;63:66-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Frank AP, Wandell MG, Headings MD, Conant MA, Woody GE, Michel C. Anonymous HIV testing using home collection and telemedicine counseling. A multicenter evaluation. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:309-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Giachetti C, Linnen JM, Kolk DP, et al. Highly sensitive multiplex assay for detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and hepatitis C virus RNA. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:2408-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Herssens N, Beelaert G, Fransen K. Discriminatory capacity between HIV-1 and HIV-2 of the new rapid confirmation assay Geenius. J Virol Methods. 2014;208:11-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurt CB, Nelson JAE, Hightow-Weidman LB, Miller WC. Selecting an HIV Test: A Narrative Review for Clinicians and Researchers. Sex Transm Dis. 2017;44:739-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Karris MY, Anderson CM, Morris SR, Smith DM, Little SJ. Cost savings associated with testing of antibodies, antigens, and nucleic acids for diagnosis of acute HIV infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:1874-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Keating SM, Kassanjee R, Lebedeva M, et al. Performance of the Bio-Rad Geenius HIV1/2 Supplemental Assay in Detecting "Recent" HIV Infection and Calculating Population Incidence. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;73:581-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kuhar DT, Henderson DK, Struble KA, et al. Updated US Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Recommendations for Postexposure Prophylaxis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34:875-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Linley L, Ethridge SF, Oraka E, et al. Evaluation of supplemental testing with the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test and APTIMA HIV-1 RNA Qualitative Assay to resolve specimens with indeterminate or negative HIV-1 Western blots. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e108-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Madec Y, Boufassa F, Porter K, et al. Natural history of HIV-control since seroconversion. AIDS. 2013;27:2451-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Malloch L, Kadivar K, Putz J, et al. Comparative evaluation of the Bio-Rad Geenius HIV-1/2 Confirmatory Assay and the Bio-Rad Multispot HIV-1/2 Rapid Test as an alternative differentiation assay for CLSI M53 algorithm-I. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e85-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Masciotra S, Luo W, Westheimer E, et al. Performance evaluation of the FDA-approved Determine™ HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo assay using plasma and whole blood specimens. J Clin Virol. 2017;91:95-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Masciotra S, Luo W, Youngpairoj AS, et al. Performance of the Alere Determine™ HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo Rapid Test with specimens from HIV-1 seroconverters from the US and HIV-2 infected individuals from Ivory Coast. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e54-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Montesinos I, Eykmans J, Delforge ML. Evaluation of the Bio-Rad Geenius HIV-1/2 test as a confirmatory assay. J Clin Virol. 2014;60:399-401.

PubMed Abstract»

Myers JE, Bodach S, Cutler BH, Shepard CW, Philippou C, Branson BM. Acceptability of home self-tests for HIV in New York City, 2006. Am J Public Health. 2014;104:e46-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Myers JE, El-Sadr WM, Zerbe A, Branson BM. Rapid HIV self-testing: long in coming but opportunities beckon. AIDS. 2013;27:1687-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Pandori MW, Hackett J Jr, Louie B, Vallari A, Dowling T, Liska S, Klausner JD. Assessment of the ability of a fourth-generation immunoassay for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antibody and p24 antigen to detect both acute and recent HIV infections in a high-risk setting. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:2639-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Pandori MW, Westheimer E, Gay C, et al. The Multispot rapid HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation assay is comparable with the Western blot and an immunofluorescence assay at confirming HIV infection in a prospective study in three regions of the United States. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e92-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Panneer N, Lontok E, Branson BM, et al. HIV and hepatitis C virus infection in the United States: whom and how to test. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:875-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Parker MM, Bennett SB, Sullivan TJ, et al. Performance of the Alere Determine™ HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo Rapid Test with algorithm-defined acute HIV-1 infection specimens. J Clin Virol. 2018;104:89-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Pierce VM, Neide B, Hodinka RL. Evaluation of the Gen-Probe Aptima HIV-1 RNA qualitative assay as an alternative to Western blot analysis for confirmation of HIV infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:1642-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Louie B, Facente S, et al. Performance of rapid point-of-care and laboratory tests for acute and established HIV infection in San Francisco. PLoS One. 2013;8:e80629.

PubMed Abstract»

Pumarola T, Freeman J, Saxton E, Dillon P, Bal T, van Helden J. Performance evaluation of the ADVIA Centaur(®) HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay. J Virol Methods. 2010;170:16-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Ricca AV, Hall EW, Khosropour CM, Sullivan PS. Factors Associated with Returning At-Home Specimen Collection Kits for HIV Testing among Internet-Using Men Who Have Sex with Men. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2016;15:463-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg NE, Kamanga G, Phiri S, et al. Detection of acute HIV infection: a field evaluation of the determine® HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo test. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:528-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Salmona M, Delarue S, Delaugerre C, Simon F, Maylin S. Clinical evaluation of BioPlex 2200 HIV Ag-Ab, an automated screening method providing discrete detection of HIV-1 p24 antigen, HIV-1 antibody, and HIV-2 antibody. J Clin Microbiol. 2014;52:103-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Schappert J, Wians FH Jr, Schiff E, et al. Multicenter evaluation of the Bayer ADVIA Centaur HIV 1/O/2 enhanced (EHIV) assay. Clin Chim Acta. 2006;372:158-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Stekler JD, O'Neal JD, Lane A, et al. Relative accuracy of serum, whole blood, and oral fluid HIV tests among Seattle men who have sex with men. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e119-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Stekler JD, Swenson PD, Coombs RW, et al. HIV testing in a high-incidence population: is antibody testing alone good enough? Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:444-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Stekler JD, Ure G, O'Neal JD, et al. Performance of Determine Combo and other point-of-care HIV tests among Seattle MSM. J Clin Virol. 2016;76:8-13.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Abbott ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. ADVIA Centaur HIV 1/O/2 Enhanced ReadyPack Reagents.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. ADVIA Centaur HIV Ag/Ab Combo (CHIV) Assay.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Alere Determine HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. APTIMA HIV-1 RNA Qualitative Assay

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Avioq HIV-1 Microelisa System.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. BioPlex 2200 HIV Ag-Ab Assay.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Chembio DPP HIV 1/2 Assay.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Chembio HIV 1/2 STAT-PAK Assay.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Chembio SURE CHECK HIV 1/2 Assay.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Complete List of Donor Screening Assays for Infectious Agents and HIV Diagnostic Assays.

FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Elecsys HIV combi PT.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Elecsys HIV Duo.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Geenius HIV 1/2 Supplemental Assay.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Genetic Systems HIV-1/HIV-2 Plus O EIA.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. GS HIV Combo Ag/Ab EIA.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Home Access HIV-1 Test System.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. INSTI HIV-1/HIV-2 Antibody Test.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. LIAISON XL MUREX HIV Ab/Ag HT and Control HIV Ab/Ag HT

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. OraQuick ADVANCE Rapid HIV-1/2 Antibody Test.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. OraQuick In-Home HIV Test.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Reveal G4 Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test (Reveal G4).

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Uni-Gold Recombigen HIV-1/2.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. VITROS Immunodiagnostic Products HIV Combo Reagent Pack & VITROS Immunodiagnostic Products HIV Combo Calibrator.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. VITROS Immunodiagnostics Products Anti-HIV 1+2 Calibrator VITROS Immunodiagnostics Products Anti-HIV 1+2 Reagent Pack.

U.S. FDA»

Module 1 » Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Laboratory HIV Testing Algorithm as Recommended by CDC/APHL

Branson BM, Mermin J. Establishing the diagnosis of HIV infection: new tests and a new algorithm for the United States. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S3-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Stekler JD. Detection of acute HIV infection: we can't close the window. J Infect Dis. 2011;205:521-4.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Detection of acute HIV infection in two evaluations of a new HIV diagnostic testing algorithm - United States, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:489-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Technical Update on HIV-1/2 Differentiation Assays. August 12, 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Technical Update: Use of the Determine HIV 1/2 Ag/Ab Combo Test with Serum or Plasma in the Laboratory Algorithm for HIV Diagnosis. October 4, 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

De Clercq J, Rutsaert S, De Scheerder MA, Verhofstede C, Callens S, Vandekerckhove L. Benefits of antiretroviral therapy initiation during acute HIV infection. Acta Clin Belg. 2020:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Herssens N, Beelaert G, Fransen K. Discriminatory capacity between HIV-1 and HIV-2 of the new rapid confirmation assay Geenius. J Virol Methods. 2014;208:11-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Masciotra S, Smith AJ, Youngpairoj AS, et al. Evaluation of the CDC proposed laboratory HIV testing algorithm among men who have sex with men (MSM) from five US metropolitan statistical areas using specimens collected in 2011. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e8-e12.

PubMed Abstract»

Ramos EM, Harb S, Dragavon J, Coombs RW. Clinical performance of the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 rapid test to correctly differentiate HIV-2 from HIV-1 infection in screening algorithms using third and fourth generation assays and to identify cross reactivity with the HIV-1 Western Blot. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e104-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith MK, Rutstein SE, Powers KA, et al. The detection and management of early HIV infection: a clinical and public health emergency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S187-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Performance of Diagnostic Tests

Alfie LG, Longueira YS, Pippo M, et al. Increased risk of false-positive HIV ELISA results after COVID-19. AIDS. 2023;37:947-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Altman DG, Bland JM. Diagnostic tests 2: Predictive values. BMJ. 1994;309:102.

PubMed Abstract»

Altman DG, Bland JM. Diagnostic tests. 1: Sensitivity and specificity. BMJ. 1994;308:1552.

PubMed Abstract»

Croft P, Altman DG, Deeks JJ, et al. The science of clinical practice: disease diagnosis or patient prognosis? Evidence about "what is likely to happen" should shape clinical practice. BMC Med. 2015;13:20.

PubMed Abstract»

de Souza MS, Pinyakorn S, Akapirat S, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy During Acute HIV-1 Infection Leads to a High Rate of Nonreactive HIV Serology. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:555-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Donnell D, Ramos E, Celum C, et al. The effect of oral preexposure prophylaxis on the progression of HIV-1 seroconversion. AIDS. 2017;31:2007-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Ellenberger DL, Sullivan PS, Dorn J, et al. Viral and immunologic examination of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected, persistently seronegative persons. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:1033-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Hare CB, Pappalardo BL, Busch MP, et al. Seroreversion in subjects receiving antiretroviral therapy during acute/early HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:700-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Jurriaans S, Sankatsing SU, Prins JM, et al. HIV-1 seroreversion in an HIV-1-seropositive patient treated during acute infection with highly active antiretroviral therapy and mycophenolate mofetil. AIDS. 2004;18:1607-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kassutto S, Johnston MN, Rosenberg ES. Incomplete HIV type 1 antibody evolution and seroreversion in acutely infected individuals treated with early antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:868-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Klarkowski D, O'Brien DP, Shanks L, Singh KP. Causes of false-positive HIV rapid diagnostic test results. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2014;12:49-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Manak MM, Jagodzinski LL, Shutt A, et al. Decreased Seroreactivity in Individuals Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy during Acute HIV Infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2019;57:pii: e00757-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Padeh YC, Rubinstein A, Shliozberg J. Common variable immunodeficiency and testing for HIV-1. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1074-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Roy MJ, Damato JJ, Burke DS. Absence of true seroreversion of HIV-1 antibody in seroreactive individuals. JAMA. 1993;269:2876-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith DK, Switzer WM, Peters P, et al. A Strategy for PrEP Clinicians to Manage Ambiguous HIV Test Results During Follow-up Visits. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5:ofy180.

PubMed Abstract»

Spivak AM, Brennan TP, O'Connell KA, et al. A case of seronegative HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:341-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Spivak AM, Sydnor ER, Blankson JN, Gallant JE. Seronegative HIV-1 infection: a review of the literature. AIDS. 2010;24:1407-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Sullivan PS, Schable C, Koch W, et al. Persistently negative HIV-1 antibody enzyme immunoassay screening results for patients with HIV-1 infection and AIDS: serologic, clinical, and virologic results. Seronegative AIDS Clinical Study Group. AIDS. 1999;13:89-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Theppote AS, Carmack AE, Riedel DJ. False positive HIV testing after T-cell receptor therapy. AIDS. 2020;34:1103-1105.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Special Diagnostic Situations

Branson BM, Stekler JD. Detection of acute HIV infection: we can't close the window. J Infect Dis. 2011;205:521-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Burgard M, Blanche S, Jasseron C, et al. Performance of HIV-1 DNA or HIV-1 RNA tests for early diagnosis of perinatal HIV-1 infection during anti-retroviral prophylaxis. J Pediatr. 2012;160:60-6.e1.

PubMed Abstract»

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV-2 Infection Surveillance--United States, 1987-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:985-8.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Cohen MS, Gay CL, Busch MP, Hecht FM. The detection of acute HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2010;202 Suppl 2:S270-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Cornett JK, Kirn TJ. Laboratory diagnosis of HIV in adults: a review of current methods. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:712-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Curlin ME, Gvetadze R, Leelawiwat W, et al. Analysis of False-Negative Human Immunodeficiency Virus Rapid Tests Performed on Oral Fluid in 3 International Clinical Research Studies. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:1663-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Little S, Pitt J, et al. Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Los Angeles County Primary HIV Infection Recruitment Network. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:25-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Pilcher CD, Hecht FM. Clinical presentation and diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2008;3:10-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Donnell D, Ramos E, Celum C, et al. The effect of oral preexposure prophylaxis on the progression of HIV-1 seroconversion. AIDS. 2017;31:2007-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Havens PL, Mofenson LM, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Evaluation and management of the infant exposed to HIV-1 in the United States. Pediatrics. 2009;123:175-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurt CB, Nelson JAE, Hightow-Weidman LB, Miller WC. Selecting an HIV Test: A Narrative Review for Clinicians and Researchers. Sex Transm Dis. 2017;44:739-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Brien TR, George JR, Epstein JS, Holmberg SD, Schochetman G. Testing for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992;41:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Owen SM, Yang C, Spira T, et al. Alternative algorithms for human immunodeficiency virus infection diagnosis using tests that are licensed in the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:1588-95.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Diagnosis of HIV infection in infants and children. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al. Trends in HIV-2 Diagnoses and Use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 Differentiation Test - United States, 2010-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:63-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Schacker T, Collier AC, Hughes J, Shea T, Corey L. Clinical and epidemiologic features of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:257-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Sivay MV, Li M, Piwowar-Manning E, et al. Characterization of HIV Seroconverters in a TDF/FTC PrEP Study: HPTN 067/ADAPT. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:271-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith DK, Switzer WM, Peters P, et al. A Strategy for PrEP Clinicians to Manage Ambiguous HIV Test Results During Follow-up Visits. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5:ofy180.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 3. HIV Diagnostic Testing

Delivering Test Results

Bissessor M, Bradshaw CS, Fairley CK, Chen MY, Chow EP. Provision of HIV test results by telephone is both safe and efficient for men who have sex with men. Int J STD AIDS. 2017;28:39-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Bowles KE, Clark HA, Tai E, et al. Implementing rapid HIV testing in outreach and community settings: results from an advancing HIV prevention demonstration project conducted in seven U.S. cities. Public Health Rep. 2008;123 Suppl 3:78-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC Testing 2013. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC-Funded HIV Testing: United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, 2013.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Act against AIDS—testing and linking minority patients to care: Delivering test results.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Issue Brief: Status Neutral HIV Care and Service Delivery Eliminating Stigma and Reducing Health Disparities.

CDC»

Joseph HA, Fasula AM, Morgan RL, et al. "The anticipation alone could kill you": past and potential clients' perspectives on HIV testing in non-health care settings. AIDS Educ Prev. 2011;23:577-94.

PubMed Abstract»

McKinstry LA, Goldbaum GM, Meischke HW. Telephone notification of HIV test results: impact in King County, Washington. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:796-800.

PubMed Abstract»

Myers JE, Bodach S, Cutler BH, Shepard CW, Philippou C, Branson BM. Acceptability of home self-tests for HIV in New York City, 2006. Am J Public Health. 2014;104:e46-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodger AJ, McCabe L, Phillips AN, et al. Free HIV self-test for identification and linkage to care of previously undetected HIV infection in men who have sex with men in England and Wales (SELPHI): an open-label, internet-based, randomised controlled trial. Lancet HIV. 2022;9:e838-e847.

PubMed Abstract»

Thornton AC, Delpech V, Kall MM, Nardone A. HIV testing in community settings in resource-rich countries: a systematic review of the evidence. HIV Med. 2012;13:416-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Witzel TC, Eshun-Wilson I, Jamil MS, et al. Comparing the effects of HIV self-testing to standard HIV testing for key populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med. 2020;18:381.

PubMed Abstract»

Baddour LM, Perfect JR, Ostrosky-Zeichner L. Successful use of amphotericin B lipid complex in the treatment of cryptococcosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40 Suppl 6:S409-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM. State of the art for diagnosis of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S221-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). False-positive oral fluid rapid HIV tests--New York City, 2005-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57:660-5.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Advancing HIV prevention: new strategies for a changing epidemic--United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003;52:329-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV-2 Infection Surveillance--United States, 1987-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:985-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Chappel RJ, Wilson KM, Dax EM. Immunoassays for the diagnosis of HIV: meeting future needs by enhancing the quality of testing. Future Microbiol. 2009;4:963-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

D'Angelo AB, Morrison CA, Lopez-Rios J, et al. Experiences Receiving HIV-Positive Results by Phone: Acceptability and Implications for Clinical and Behavioral Research. AIDS Behav. 2021;25:709-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Little S, Pitt J, et al. Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Los Angeles County Primary HIV Infection Recruitment Network. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:25-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamill RJ, Sobel JD, El-Sadr W, et al. Comparison of 2 doses of liposomal amphotericin B and conventional amphotericin B deoxycholate for treatment of AIDS-associated acute cryptococcal meningitis: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial of efficacy and safety. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:225-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Hutchinson AB, Ethridge SF, Wesolowski LG, et al. Costs and outcomes of laboratory diagnostic algorithms for the detection of HIV. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e2-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kwon JA, Yoon SY, Lee CK, et al. Performance evaluation of three automated human immunodeficiency virus antigen-antibody combination immunoassays. J Virol Methods. 2006;133:20-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Leenders AC, Reiss P, Portegies P, et al. Liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) compared with amphotericin B both followed by oral fluconazole in the treatment of AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. AIDS. 1997;11:1463-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Ly TD, Laperche S, Brennan C, et al. Evaluation of the sensitivity and specificity of six HIV combined p24 antigen and antibody assays. J Virol Methods. 2004;122:185-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Mitchell EO, Stewart G, Bajzik O, Ferret M, Bentsen C, Shriver MK. Performance comparison of the 4th generation Bio-Rad Laboratories GS HIV Combo Ag/Ab EIA on the EVOLIS™ automated system versus Abbott ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo, Ortho Anti-HIV 1+2 EIA on Vitros ECi and Siemens HIV-1/O/2 enhanced on Advia Centaur. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e79-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Nasrullah M, Wesolowski LG, Meyer WA 3rd, et al. Performance of a fourth-generation HIV screening assay and an alternative HIV diagnostic testing algorithm. AIDS. 2013;27:731-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC. Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: Lessons for viral immunopathogenesis. Rev Med Virol. 2013;23:221-40.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Brien TR, George JR, Epstein JS, Holmberg SD, Schochetman G. Testing for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992;41:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Patel P, Mackellar D, Simmons P, et al. Detecting acute human immunodeficiency virus infection using 3 different screening immunoassays and nucleic acid amplification testing for human immunodeficiency virus RNA, 2006-2008. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:66-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:291-322.

PubMed Abstract»

Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al. Trends in HIV-2 Diagnoses and Use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 Differentiation Test - United States, 2010-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:63-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Ramos EM, Harb S, Dragavon J, Swenson P, Stekler JD, Coombs RW. Performance of an alternative HIV diagnostic algorithm using the ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay and potential utility of sample-to-cutoff ratio to discriminate primary from established infection. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e38-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg NE, Pilcher CD, Busch MP, Cohen MS. How can we better identify early HIV infections? Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2015;10:61-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Spielberg F, Levine RO, Weaver M. Self-testing for HIV: a new option for HIV prevention? Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4:640-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Torian LV, Forgione LA, Punsalang AE, Pirillo RE, Oleszko WR. Comparison of Multispot EIA with Western blot for confirmatory serodiagnosis of HIV. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S41-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Tudor Car L, Gentry S, van-Velthoven MH, Car J. Telephone communication of HIV testing results for improving knowledge of HIV infection status. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;1:CD009192.

PubMed Abstract»

Udeagu CC, Bocour A, Shepard CW. For partner services, do we need "face-time," or FaceTime?: Trends in relative proportion of in-person notifications and HIV testing after introduction of a telephone option for HIV exposure notification by public health. Sex Transm Dis. 2014;41:671-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection

Module 1 » Lesson 4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection

Background and Definitions

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Gay CL, Busch MP, Hecht FM. The detection of acute HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2010;202 Suppl 2:S270-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Shaw GM, McMichael AJ, Haynes BF. Acute HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1943-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Pilcher CD, Hecht FM. Clinical presentation and diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2008;3:10-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Fiebig EW, Wright DJ, Rawal BD, et al. Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2003;17:1871-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hogan CM, Degruttola V, Sun X, et al. The setpoint study (ACTG A5217): effect of immediate versus deferred antiretroviral therapy on virologic set point in recently HIV-1-infected individuals. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:87-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:33-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Keele BF, Giorgi EE, Salazar-Gonzalez JF, et al. Identification and characterization of transmitted and early founder virus envelopes in primary HIV-1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105:7552-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Konrad BP, Taylor D, Conway JM, Ogilvie GS, Coombs D. On the duration of the period between exposure to HIV and detectable infection. Epidemics. 2017;20:73-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Lavreys L, Baeten JM, Chohan V, et al. Higher set point plasma viral load and more-severe acute HIV type 1 (HIV-1) illness predict mortality among high-risk HIV-1-infected African women. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:1333-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pilcher CD, Joaki G, Hoffman IF, et al. Amplified transmission of HIV-1: comparison of HIV-1 concentrations in semen and blood during acute and chronic infection. AIDS. 2007;21:1723-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Rolland M, Tovanabutra S, Dearlove B, et al. Molecular dating and viral load growth rates suggested that the eclipse phase lasted about a week in HIV-1 infected adults in East Africa and Thailand. PLoS Pathog. 2020;16:e1008179.

PubMed Abstract»

Schacker T, Collier AC, Hughes J, Shea T, Corey L. Clinical and epidemiologic features of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:257-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Walker BD, Goulder PJ. AIDS. Escape from the immune system. Nature. 2000;407:313-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, et al. Rates of HIV-1 transmission per coital act, by stage of HIV-1 infection, in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1403-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection

Immunopathogenesis

Carlson JM, Schaefer M, Monaco DC, et al. HIV transmission. Selection bias at the heterosexual HIV-1 transmission bottleneck. Science. 2014;345:1254031.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Shaw GM, McMichael AJ, Haynes BF. Acute HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1943-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Dorrucci M, Rezza G, Vlahov D, et al. Clinical characteristics and prognostic value of acute retroviral syndrome among injecting drug users. Italian Seroconversion Study. AIDS. 1995;9:597-604.

PubMed Abstract»

Fennessey CM, Keele BF. Using nonhuman primates to model HIV transmission. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2013;8:280-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Fiebig EW, Wright DJ, Rawal BD, et al. Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2003;17:1871-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Guadalupe M, Reay E, Sankaran S, et al. Severe CD4+ T-cell depletion in gut lymphoid tissue during primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and substantial delay in restoration following highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Virol. 2003;77:11708-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Haase AT. Early events in sexual transmission of HIV and SIV and opportunities for interventions. Annu Rev Med. 2011;62:127-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Henrard DR, Phillips JF, Muenz LR, Blattner WA, Wiesner D, Eyster ME, Goedert JJ. Natural history of HIV-1 cell-free viremia. JAMA. 1995;274:554-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:33-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Koup RA, Safrit JT, Cao Y, et al. Temporal association of cellular immune responses with the initial control of viremia in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 syndrome. J Virol. 1994;68:4650-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Letvin NL, Walker BD. Immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy in AIDS virus infections. Nat Med. 2003;9:861-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Lyles RH, Munoz A, Yamashita TE, et al. Natural history of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viremia after seroconversion and proximal to AIDS in a large cohort of homosexual men. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:872-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Mehandru S, Poles MA, Tenner-Racz K, et al. Primary HIV-1 infection is associated with preferential depletion of CD4+ T lymphocytes from effector sites in the gastrointestinal tract. J Exp Med. 2004;200:761-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Niu MT, Stein DS, Schnittman SM. Primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: review of pathogenesis and early treatment intervention in humans and animal retrovirus infections. J Infect Dis. 1993;168:1490-501.

PubMed Abstract»

Pantaleo G, Demarest JF, Schacker T, et al. The qualitative nature of the primary immune response to HIV infection is a prognosticator of disease progression independent of the initial level of plasma viremia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94:254-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Patke DS, Langan SJ, Carruth LM, et al. Association of Gag-specific T lymphocyte responses during the early phase of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and lower virus load set point. J Infect Dis. 2002;186:1177-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Robb ML, Eller LA, Kibuuka H, et al. Prospective Study of Acute HIV-1 Infection in Adults in East Africa and Thailand. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:2120-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Schacker TW, Hughes JP, Shea T, Coombs RW, Corey L. Biological and virologic characteristics of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:613-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Spira AI, Marx PA, Patterson BK, Mahoney J, Koup RA, Wolinsky SM, Ho DD. Cellular targets of infection and route of viral dissemination after an intravaginal inoculation of simian immunodeficiency virus into rhesus macaques. J Exp Med. 1996;183:215-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterling TR, Vlahov D, Astemborski J, Hoover DR, Margolick JB, Quinn TC. Initial plasma HIV-1 RNA levels and progression to AIDS in women and men. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:720-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Streeck H, Lu R, Beckwith N, et al. Emergence of Individual HIV-Specific CD8 T Cell Responses during Primary HIV-1 Infection Can Determine Long-Term Disease Outcome. J Virol. 2014;88:12793-801.

PubMed Abstract»

Sugaya M, Lore K, Koup RA, Douek DC, Blauvelt A. HIV-infected Langerhans cells preferentially transmit virus to proliferating autologous CD4(+) memory T cells located within Langerhans cell-T cell clusters. J Immunol. 2004;172:2219-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Vanhems P, Lecomte C, Fabry J. Primary HIV-1 infection: diagnosis and prognostic impact. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 1998;12:751-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Walker BD, Goulder PJ. AIDS. Escape from the immune system. Nature. 2000;407:313-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection

Clinical Manifestations

Daar ES, Little S, Pitt J, et al. Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Los Angeles County Primary HIV Infection Recruitment Network. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:25-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Pilcher CD, Hecht FM. Clinical presentation and diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2008;3:10-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Gabert R, Lama JR, Valdez R, et al. Acute retroviral syndrome is associated with lower CD4 nadir and delayed viral suppression, which are blunted by immediate ART initiation. AIDS. 2023 Feb 9. Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Hecht FM, Busch MP, Rawal B, et al. Use of laboratory tests and clinical symptoms for identification of primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2002;16:1119-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:33-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Newton PJ, Newsholme W, Brink NS, Manji H, Williams IG, Miller RF. Acute meningoencephalitis and meningitis due to primary HIV infection. BMJ. 2002;325:1225-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Pincus JM, Crosby SS, Losina E, King ER, LaBelle C, Freedberg KA. Acute human immunodeficiency virus infection in patients presenting to an urban urgent care center. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:1699-704.

PubMed Abstract»

Schacker T, Collier AC, Hughes J, Shea T, Corey L. Clinical and epidemiologic features of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:257-64.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Vanhems P, Hughes J, Collier AC, et al. Comparison of clinical features, CD4 and CD8 responses among patients with acute HIV-1 infection from Geneva, Seattle and Sydney. AIDS. 2000;14:375-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection

Laboratory Diagnosis

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Chavez P, Wesolowski L, Patel P, Delaney K, Owen SM. Evaluation of the performance of the Abbott ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo Assay. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S51-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Gay CL, Busch MP, Hecht FM. The detection of acute HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2010;202 Suppl 2:S270-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Little S, Pitt J, et al. Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Los Angeles County Primary HIV Infection Recruitment Network. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:25-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Eshleman SH, Khaki L, Laeyendecker O, et al. Detection of individuals with acute HIV-1 infection using the ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;52:121-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Fiebig EW, Wright DJ, Rawal BD, et al. Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2003;17:1871-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Giachetti C, Linnen JM, Kolk DP, et al. Highly sensitive multiplex assay for detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and hepatitis C virus RNA. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:2408-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Hare CB, Pappalardo BL, Busch MP, et al. Seroreversion in subjects receiving antiretroviral therapy during acute/early HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:700-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:33-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Killian MS, Norris PJ, Rawal BD, Lebedeva M, Hecht FM, Levy JA, Busch MP. The effects of early antiretroviral therapy and its discontinuation on the HIV-specific antibody response. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2006;22:640-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Konrad BP, Taylor D, Conway JM, Ogilvie GS, Coombs D. On the duration of the period between exposure to HIV and detectable infection. Epidemics. 2017;20:73-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Kuruc JD, Cope AB, Sampson LA, et al. Ten Years of Screening and Testing for Acute HIV Infection in North Carolina. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;71:111-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Peters PJ, Westheimer E, Cohen S, et al. Screening Yield of HIV Antigen/Antibody Combination and Pooled HIV RNA Testing for Acute HIV Infection in a High-Prevalence Population. JAMA. 2016;315:682-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Rawal BD, Degula A, Lebedeva L, et al. Development of a new less-sensitive enzyme immunoassay for detection of early HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;33:349-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Rich JD, Merriman NA, Mylonakis E, et al. Misdiagnosis of HIV infection by HIV-1 plasma viral load testing: a case series. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:37-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg NE, Kamanga G, Phiri S, et al. Detection of acute HIV infection: a field evaluation of the determine® HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo test. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:528-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Stekler JD, Swenson PD, Coombs RW, et al. HIV testing in a high-incidence population: is antibody testing alone good enough? Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:444-53.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Alere Determine HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. APTIMA HIV-1 RNA Qualitative Assay

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. BioPlex 2200 HIV Ag-Ab Assay.

U.S. FDA»

Module 1 » Lesson 4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection

Rationale for Treatment of Acute HIV Infection

Chéret A, Nembot G, Mélard A, et al. Intensive five-drug antiretroviral therapy regimen versus standard triple-drug therapy during primary HIV-1 infection (OPTIPRIM-ANRS 147): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:387-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Shaw GM, McMichael AJ, Haynes BF. Acute HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1943-54.

PubMed Abstract»

De Clercq J, Rutsaert S, De Scheerder MA, Verhofstede C, Callens S, Vandekerckhove L. Benefits of antiretroviral therapy initiation during acute HIV infection. Acta Clin Belg. 2020:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Grijsen M, Koster G, van Vonderen M, et al. Temporary antiretroviral treatment during primary HIV-1 infection has a positive impact on health-related quality of life: data from the Primo-SHM cohort study. HIV Med. 2012;13:630-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamlyn E, Jones V, Porter K, Fidler S. Antiretroviral treatment of primary HIV infection to reduce onward transmission. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2010;5:283-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Hecht FM, Wang L, Collier A, et al. A multicenter observational study of the potential benefits of initiating combination antiretroviral therapy during acute HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2006;194:725-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:33-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Lama JR, Ignacio RAB, Alfaro R, et al. Clinical and Immunologic Outcomes After Immediate or Deferred Antiretroviral Therapy Initiation During Primary Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: The Sabes Randomized Clinical Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72:1042-1050.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Malhotra U, Berrey MM, Huang Y, et al. Effect of combination antiretroviral therapy on T-cell immunity in acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:121-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Okulicz JF, Le TD, Agan BK, et al. Influence of the timing of antiretroviral therapy on the potential for normalization of immune status in human immunodeficiency virus 1-infected individuals. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:88-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Joaki G, Hoffman IF, et al. Amplified transmission of HIV-1: comparison of HIV-1 concentrations in semen and blood during acute and chronic infection. AIDS. 2007;21:1723-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, et al. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:921-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg ES, Altfeld M, Poon SH, et al. Immune control of HIV-1 after early treatment of acute infection. Nature. 2000;407:523-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Sáez-Cirión A, Bacchus C, Hocqueloux L, et al. Post-treatment HIV-1 controllers with a long-term virological remission after the interruption of early initiated antiretroviral therapy ANRS VISCONTI Study. PLoS Pathog. 2013;9:e1003211.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith MK, Rutstein SE, Powers KA, et al. The detection and management of early HIV infection: a clinical and public health emergency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S187-99.

PubMed Abstract»

SPARTAC Trial Investigators, Fidler S, Porter K, et al. Short-course antiretroviral therapy in primary HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:207-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 4. Acute and Recent HIV Infection

Antiretroviral Treatment Recommendations for Acute HIV

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Shaw GM, McMichael AJ, Haynes BF. Acute HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1943-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Grijsen ML, Steingrover R, Wit FW, et al. No treatment versus 24 or 60 weeks of antiretroviral treatment during primary HIV infection: the randomized Primo-SHM trial. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001196.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamlyn E, Jones V, Porter K, Fidler S. Antiretroviral treatment of primary HIV infection to reduce onward transmission. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2010;5:283-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Hecht FM, Busch MP, Rawal B, et al. Use of laboratory tests and clinical symptoms for identification of primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2002;16:1119-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:33-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Kuller LH, Tracy R, Belloso W, et al. Inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers and mortality in patients with HIV infection. PLoS Med. 2008;5:e203.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Li S, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Tail-phase safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of long-acting injectable cabotegravir in HIV-uninfected adults: a secondary analysis of the HPTN 077 trial. Lancet HIV. 2020;7:e472-e481.

PubMed Abstract»

Malhotra U, Berrey MM, Huang Y, et al. Effect of combination antiretroviral therapy on T-cell immunity in acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:121-31.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Pilcher CD, Joaki G, Hoffman IF, et al. Amplified transmission of HIV-1: comparison of HIV-1 concentrations in semen and blood during acute and chronic infection. AIDS. 2007;21:1723-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, et al. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:921-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg ES, Altfeld M, Poon SH, et al. Immune control of HIV-1 after early treatment of acute infection. Nature. 2000;407:523-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith MK, Rutstein SE, Powers KA, et al. The detection and management of early HIV infection: a clinical and public health emergency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S187-99.

PubMed Abstract»

SPARTAC Trial Investigators, Fidler S, Porter K, et al. Short-course antiretroviral therapy in primary HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:207-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

Airoldi M, Zaccarelli M, Bisi L, et al. One-pill once-a-day HAART: a simplification strategy that improves adherence and quality of life of HIV-infected subjects. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2010;4:115-25.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Chavez P, Wesolowski L, Patel P, Delaney K, Owen SM. Evaluation of the performance of the Abbott ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo Assay. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S51-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Gay CL, Busch MP, Hecht FM. The detection of acute HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2010;202 Suppl 2:S270-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Little S, Pitt J, et al. Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Los Angeles County Primary HIV Infection Recruitment Network. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:25-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, Pilcher CD, Hecht FM. Clinical presentation and diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2008;3:10-5.

PubMed Abstract»

De Clercq J, Rutsaert S, De Scheerder MA, Verhofstede C, Callens S, Vandekerckhove L. Benefits of antiretroviral therapy initiation during acute HIV infection. Acta Clin Belg. 2020:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Eshleman SH, Khaki L, Laeyendecker O, et al. Detection of individuals with acute HIV-1 infection using the ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;52:121-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Fessler RD, Sobel J, Guyot L, et al. Management of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with Cryptococcal meningitis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;17:137-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Fiebig EW, Wright DJ, Rawal BD, et al. Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS. 2003;17:1871-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Giachetti C, Linnen JM, Kolk DP, et al. Highly sensitive multiplex assay for detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and hepatitis C virus RNA. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:2408-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Girometti N, McCormack S, Tittle V, McOwan A, Whitlock G. Rising rates of recent preexposure prophylaxis exposure among men having sex with men newly diagnosed with HIV: antiviral resistance patterns and treatment outcomes. AIDS. 2022;36:561-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Graybill JR, Sobel J, Saag M, et al. Diagnosis and management of increased intracranial pressure in patients with AIDS and cryptococcal meningitis. The NIAID Mycoses Study Group and AIDS Cooperative Treatment Groups. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:47-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamlyn E, Ewings FM, Porter K, et al. Plasma HIV viral rebound following protocol-indicated cessation of ART commenced in primary and chronic HIV infection. PLoS One. 2012;7:e43754.

PubMed Abstract»

Hare CB, Pappalardo BL, Busch MP, et al. Seroreversion in subjects receiving antiretroviral therapy during acute/early HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:700-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoen B, Dumon B, Harzic M, et al. Highly active antiretroviral treatment initiated early in the course of symptomatic primary HIV-1 infection: results of the ANRS 053 trial. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:1342-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Hollingsworth TD, Anderson RM, Fraser C. HIV-1 transmission, by stage of infection. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:687-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Lillo FB, Ciuffreda D, Veglia F, et al. Viral load and burden modification following early antiretroviral therapy of primary HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 1999;13:791-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Madec Y, Boufassa F, Porter K, et al. Natural history of HIV-control since seroconversion. AIDS. 2013;27:2451-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Manak MM, Jagodzinski LL, Shutt A, et al. Decreased Seroreactivity in Individuals Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy during Acute HIV Infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2019;57:pii: e00757-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Marzinke MA, Grinsztejn B, Fogel JM, et al. Characterization of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Cisgender Men and Transgender Women Who Have Sex With Men Receiving Injectable Cabotegravir for HIV Prevention: HPTN 083. J Infect Dis. 2021;224:1581-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Newton PN, Thai le H, Tip NQ, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of acetazolamide for the treatment of elevated intracranial pressure in cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:769-72.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Pinkerton SD. How many sexually-acquired HIV infections in the USA are due to acute-phase HIV transmission? AIDS. 2007;21:1625-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Prabhu VS, Hutchinson AB, Farnham PG, Sansom SL. Sexually acquired HIV infections in the United States due to acute-phase HIV transmission: an update. AIDS. 2009;23:1792-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg NE, Kamanga G, Phiri S, et al. Detection of acute HIV infection: a field evaluation of the determine® HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo test. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:528-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Saag MS, Graybill RJ, Larsen RA, et al. Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:710-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Schacker T, Collier AC, Hughes J, Shea T, Corey L. Clinical and epidemiologic features of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:257-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Schuetz A, Deleage C, Sereti I, et al. Initiation of ART during early acute HIV infection preserves mucosal Th17 function and reverses HIV-related immune activation. PLoS Pathog. 2014;10:e1004543.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith MK, Rutstein SE, Powers KA, et al. The detection and management of early HIV infection: a clinical and public health emergency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S187-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Stekler JD, Swenson PD, Coombs RW, et al. HIV testing in a high-incidence population: is antibody testing alone good enough? Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:444-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Strain MC, Little SJ, Daar ES, et al. Effect of treatment, during primary infection, on establishment and clearance of cellular reservoirs of HIV-1. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1410-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Strongin Z, Sharaf R, VanBelzen DJ, et al. Effect of Short-Term Antiretroviral Therapy Interruption on Levels of Integrated HIV DNA. J Virol. 2018;92:pii:e00285-18.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Alere Determine HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab Combo.

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. APTIMA HIV-1 RNA Qualitative Assay

U.S. FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. BioPlex 2200 HIV Ag-Ab Assay.

U.S. FDA»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Lesson 5. Linkage to HIV Care

Module 1 » Lesson 5. Linkage to HIV Care

Background and Goals

Coffey S, Bacchetti P, Sachdev D, et al. RAPID antiretroviral therapy: high virologic suppression rates with immediate antiretroviral therapy initiation in a vulnerable urban clinic population. AIDS. 2019;33:825-832.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

INSIGHT START Study Group, Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, Gordin F, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:795-807.

PubMed Abstract»

Kitahata MM, Gange SJ, Abraham AG, et al. Effect of early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy for HIV on survival. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1815-26.

PubMed Abstract»

McNairy ML, El-Sadr WM. Antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of HIV transmission: what will it take? Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1003-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Amico KR, Horn T, Thompson MA. The state of engagement in HIV care in the United States: from cascade to continuum to control. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1164-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Robertson M, Laraque F, Mavronicolas H, Braunstein S, Torian L. Linkage and retention in care and the time to HIV viral suppression and viral rebound - New York City. AIDS Care. 2014;27:260-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

The White House. 2021. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States 2022–2025. Washington, DC

The White House: Washington»

Module 1 » Lesson 5. Linkage to HIV Care

Process for Estimating and Monitoring Linkage to Care

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2018 Cycle (June 2018–May 2019). HIV Surveillance Special Report 25:1-38.Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data – United States and 6 dependent areas – 2011. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 18 (No. 5). 2013.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring Selected National HIV Prevention and Care Objectives by Using HIV Surveillance Data United States and 6 Dependent Areas, 2018 HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 2):1-104. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring Selected National HIV Prevention and Care Objectives by Using HIV Surveillance Data United States and 6 Dependent Areas, 2020 HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2022;27(No. 3):1-138. Published August 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 territories and freely associated states, 2022. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 2024; 29(No. 2). Published May 21, 2024

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. State Laboratory Reporting Laws: Viral Load and CD4 Requirements.

CDC»

Dombrowski JC, Buskin SE, Bennett A, Thiede H, Golden MR. Use of multiple data sources and individual case investigation to refine surveillance-based estimates of the HIV care continuum. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:323-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Gray KM, Cohen SM, Hu X, Li J, Mermin J, Hall HI. Jurisdiction level differences in HIV diagnosis, retention in care, and viral suppression in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65:129-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Song R, Gerstle JE 3rd, Lee LM. Assessing the completeness of reporting of human immunodeficiency virus diagnoses in 2002-2003: capture-recapture methods. Am J Epidemiol. 2006;164:391-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Institute of Medicine. Monitoring HIV Care in the United States, Report Brief 2012. Published October 2012.

Institute of Medicine»

Mugavero MJ, Westfall AO, Zinski A, et al. Measuring retention in HIV care: the elusive gold standard. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:574-80.

PubMed Abstract»

The White House. 2021. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States 2022–2025. Washington, DC

The White House: Washington»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

Module 1 » Lesson 5. Linkage to HIV Care

Current State of Linkage to Care in the United States

Alexander TS. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Diagnostic Testing: 30 Years of Evolution. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2016;23:249-53.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring Selected National HIV Prevention and Care Objectives by Using HIV Surveillance Data United States and 6 Dependent Areas, 2019 HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 2):1-158. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring Selected National HIV Prevention and Care Objectives by Using HIV Surveillance Data United States and 6 Dependent Areas, 2020 HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2022;27(No. 3):1-138. Published August 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Christopoulos KA, Kaplan B, Dowdy D, et al. Testing and linkage to care outcomes for a clinician-initiated rapid HIV testing program in an urban emergency department. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2011;25:439-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Kent JB, Buskin SE, Stekler JD, Golden MR. Population-based metrics for the timing of HIV diagnosis, engagement in HIV care, and virologic suppression. AIDS. 2012;26:77-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Simoni JM, Katz DA, Golden MR. Barriers to HIV Care and Treatment Among Participants in a Public Health HIV Care Relinkage Program. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:279-87.

PubMed Abstract»

FitzHarris LF, Hollis ND, Nesheim SR, Greenspan JL, Dunbar EK. Pregnancy and linkage to care among women diagnosed with HIV infection in 61 CDC-funded health departments in the United States, 2013. AIDS Care. 2017:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Gardner EM, McLees MP, Steiner JF, Del Rio C, Burman WJ. The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:793-800.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Visnegarwala F, White AC Jr, et al. Patients referred to an urban HIV clinic frequently fail to establish care: factors predicting failure. AIDS Care. 2005;17:773-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Marks G, Gardner LI, Craw J, Crepaz N. Entry and retention in medical care among HIV-diagnosed persons: a meta-analysis. AIDS. 2010;24:2665-78.

PubMed Abstract»

Mayer KH. Introduction: Linkage, engagement, and retention in HIV care: essential for optimal individual- and community-level outcomes in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52 Suppl 2:S205-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Menon AA, Nganga-Good C, Martis M, et al. Linkage-to-care methods and rates in U.S. emergency department-based HIV testing programs: a systematic literature review brief report. Acad Emerg Med. 2016;23:835-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Amico KR, Horn T, Thompson MA. The state of engagement in HIV care in the United States: from cascade to continuum to control. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1164-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Robertson M, Wei SC, Beer L, et al. Delayed entry into HIV medical care in a nationally representative sample of HIV-infected adults receiving medical care in the USA. AIDS Care. 2016;28:325-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Rothman RE, Kelen GD, Harvey L, et al. Factors associated with no or delayed linkage to care in newly diagnosed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1-infected patients identified by emergency department-based rapid HIV screening programs in two urban EDs. Acad Emerg Med. 2012;19:497-503.

PubMed Abstract»

Rumptz MH, Tobias C, Rajabiun S, et al. Factors associated with engaging socially marginalized HIV-positive persons in primary care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21 Suppl 1:S30-9.

PubMed Abstract»

The White House. 2021. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States 2022–2025. Washington, DC

The White House: Washington»

Torian LV, Wiewel EW, Liu KL, Sackoff JE, Frieden TR. Risk factors for delayed initiation of medical care after diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1181-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Tripathi A, Gardner LI, Ogbuanu I, et al. Predictors of time to enter medical care after a new HIV diagnosis: a statewide population-based study. AIDS Care. 2011;23:1366-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Ulett KB, Willig JH, Lin HY, et al. The therapeutic implications of timely linkage and early retention in HIV care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:41-9.

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

Xia Q, Zhong Y, Wiewel EW, Braunstein SL, Torian LV. Linkage to Care After HIV Diagnosis in New York City: Better Than We Thought. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;76:e18-e21.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 5. Linkage to HIV Care

Interventions to Improve Linkage to Care

Bocour A, Renaud TC, Udeagu CC, Shepard CW. HIV partner services are associated with timely linkage to HIV medical care. AIDS. 2013;27:2961-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradford JB, Coleman S, Cunningham W. HIV System Navigation: an emerging model to improve HIV care access. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21 Suppl 1:S49-58.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC and Prevention. Recommendations for partner services programs for HIV infection, syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydial infection. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008;57:1-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Effective Interventions—HIV Prevention that Works: Partner Services.

CDC and Prevention»

Craw JA, Gardner LI, Marks G, et al. Brief strengths-based case management promotes entry into HIV medical care: results of the antiretroviral treatment access study-II. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;47:597-606.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr W, Branson B, Hall HI, et al. Effect of Financial Incentives on Linkage to Care and Viral Suppression: HPTN 065. Presented at the 22nd Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Seattle, February 23-26, 2015. Abstract 29.

CROI»

El-Sadr WM, Donnell D, Beauchamp G, et al. Financial Incentives for Linkage to Care and Viral Suppression Among HIV-Positive Patients: A Randomized Clinical Trial (HPTN 065). JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177:1083-1092.

PubMed Abstract»

Gardner LI, Metsch LR, Anderson-Mahoney P, et al. Efficacy of a brief case management intervention to link recently diagnosed HIV-infected persons to care. AIDS. 2005;19:423-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Greene E, Pack A, Stanton J, et al. "It Makes You Feel Like Someone Cares" acceptability of a financial incentive intervention for HIV viral suppression in the HPTN 065 (TLC-Plus) study. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0170686.

PubMed Abstract»

Hood JE, Katz DA, Bennett AB, et al. Integrating HIV Surveillance and Field Services: Data Quality and Care Continuum in King County, Washington, 2010-2015. Am J Public Health. 2017;107:1938-43.

PubMed Abstract»

International Advisory Panel on HIV Care Continuum Optimization. IAPAC Guidelines for Optimizing the HIV Care Continuum for Adults and Adolescents. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2015;14 Suppl 1:S3-S34.

PubMed Abstract»

Molitor F, Waltermeyer J, Mendoza M, et al. Locating and linking to medical care HIV-positive persons without a history of care: findings from the California Bridge Project. AIDS Care. 2006;18:456-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Myers JJ, Kang Dufour MS, Koester KA, et al. The Effect of Patient Navigation on the Likelihood of Engagement in Clinical Care for HIV-Infected Individuals Leaving Jail. Am J Public Health. 2018;108:385-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Naar-King S, Bradford J, Coleman S, Green-Jones M, Cabral H, Tobias C. Retention in care of persons newly diagnosed with HIV: outcomes of the Outreach Initiative. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21 Suppl 1:S40-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Rajabiun S, Cabral H, Tobias C, Relf M. Program design and evaluation strategies for the Special Projects of National Significance Outreach Initiative. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21 Suppl 1:S9-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Risher KA, Kapoor S, Daramola AM, et al. Challenges in the Evaluation of Interventions to Improve Engagement Along the HIV Care Continuum in the United States: A Systematic Review. AIDS Behav. 2017;21:2101-2123.

PubMed Abstract»

Robertson M, Laraque F, Mavronicolas H, Braunstein S, Torian L. Linkage and retention in care and the time to HIV viral suppression and viral rebound - New York City. AIDS Care. 2014;27:260-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Sanchez TH, Sullivan PS, Rothman RE, et al. A Novel Approach to Realizing Routine HIV Screening and Enhancing Linkage to Care in the United States: Protocol of the FOCUS Program and Early Results. JMIR Res Protoc. 2014;3:e39.

PubMed Abstract»

Shelus V, Taylor J, Greene E, et al. It's all in the timing: Acceptability of a financial incentive intervention for linkage to HIV care in the HPTN 065 (TLC-Plus) study. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0191638.

PubMed Abstract»

Simoni JM, Nelson KM, Franks JC, Yard SS, Lehavot K. Are peer interventions for HIV efficacious? A systematic review. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:1589-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson MA, Mugavero MJ, Amico R, et al. Guidelines for improving entry into and retention in care and antiretroviral adherence for persons with HIV: evidence-based recommendations from an International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care panel. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156:817-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Wohl AR, Ludwig-Barron N, Dierst-Davies R, et al. Project Engage: Snowball Sampling and Direct Recruitment to Identify and Link Hard-to-Reach HIV-Infected Persons Who Are Out of Care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:190-197.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 1 » Lesson 5. Linkage to HIV Care

Strategies for Clinics to Improve Linkage to Care

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Compendium of Evidence-Based Interventions and Best Practices for HIV Prevention

CDC»

Dombrowski JC, Kent JB, Buskin SE, Stekler JD, Golden MR. Population-based metrics for the timing of HIV diagnosis, engagement in HIV care, and virologic suppression. AIDS. 2012;26:77-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Liau A, Crepaz N, Lyles CM, et al. Interventions to promote linkage to and utilization of HIV medical care among HIV-diagnosed persons: a qualitative systematic review, 1996-2011. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:1941-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Lin HY, Allison JJ, et al. Failure to establish HIV care: characterizing the 'no show' phenomenon. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:127-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Lin HY, Willig JH, et al. Missed visits and mortality among patients establishing initial outpatient HIV treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:248-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ. Improving engagement in HIV care: what can we do? Top HIV Med. 2008;16:156-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Robertson M, Laraque F, Mavronicolas H, Braunstein S, Torian L. Linkage and retention in care and the time to HIV viral suppression and viral rebound - New York City. AIDS Care. 2014;27:260-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Beltrami J, Dubose O, Carson R, Cleveland JC. Using HIV Surveillance Data to Link People to HIV Medical Care, 5 US States, 2012-2015. Public Health Rep. 2018;133:385-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Effective Interventions—HIV Prevention that Works: Partner Services.

CDC and Prevention»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National HIV Prevention Progress Report, 2015

CDC»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Flash CA, Pasalar S, Hemmige V, et al. Benefits of a routine opt-out HIV testing and linkage to care program for previously diagnosed patients in publicly funded emergency departments in Houston, TX. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;69 Suppl 1:S8-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Hallmark CJ, Davila JA, et al. Assessing HIV testing and linkage to care activities and providing academic support to public health authorities in Houston, TX. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;64 Suppl 1:S7-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Tang T, Westfall AO, Mugavero MJ. HIV care visits and time to viral suppression, 19 U.S. jurisdictions, and implications for treatment, prevention and the national HIV/AIDS strategy. PLoS One. 2013;8:e84318.

PubMed Abstract»

Hightow-Weidman LB, Smith JC, Valera E, Matthews DD, Lyons P. Keeping them in "STYLE": finding, linking, and retaining young HIV-positive black and Latino men who have sex with men in care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2011;25:37-45.

PubMed Abstract»

INSIGHT START Study Group, Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, Gordin F, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:795-807.

PubMed Abstract»

Johns Hopkins Hospital Emergency Department HIV Screening and Linkage-to-Care Team, Negoita S, Signer D, et al. Linkage to Care, Antiretroviral Treatment Initiation, and Viral Suppression of Acute HIV-Infected Individuals Identified From an Emergency Department-Based HIV Screening and Linkage-to-Care Program. Ann Emerg Med. 2018;72:621-623.

PubMed Abstract»

Karch DL, Dong X, Shi J, Hall HI. Trends in Care and Treatment for Persons Aged ≥13 Years with HIV Infection 17 U.S. Jurisdictions, 2012-2015. Open AIDS J. 2018;12:90-105.

PubMed Abstract»

Keller S, Jones J, Erbelding E. Choice of Rapid HIV testing and entrance into care in Baltimore City sexually transmitted infections clinics. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2011;25:237-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Kitahata MM, Gange SJ, Abraham AG, et al. Effect of early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy for HIV on survival. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1815-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Kumar P, DeJesus E, Huhn G, et al. Evaluation of cardiovascular biomarkers in a randomized trial of fosamprenavir/ritonavir vs. efavirenz with abacavir/lamivudine in underrepresented, antiretroviral-naïve, HIV-infected patients (SUPPORT): 96-week results. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13:269.

PubMed Abstract»

McGoy SL, Pettit AC, Morrison M, et al. Use of Social Network Strategy Among Young Black Men Who Have Sex With Men for HIV Testing, Linkage to Care, and Reengagement in Care, Tennessee, 2013-2016. Public Health Rep. 2018;133:43S-51S.

PubMed Abstract»

Metsch LR, Feaster DJ, Gooden L, et al. Effect of Patient Navigation With or Without Financial Incentives on Viral Suppression Among Hospitalized Patients With HIV Infection and Substance Use: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2016;316:156-70.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

Schrantz SJ, Babcock CA, Theodosis C, et al. A targeted, conventional assay, emergency department HIV testing program integrated with existing clinical procedures. Ann Emerg Med. 2011;58:S85-8.e1.

PubMed Abstract»

Tucker JD, Tso LS, Hall B, et al. Enhancing Public Health HIV Interventions: A Qualitative Meta-Synthesis and Systematic Review of Studies to Improve Linkage to Care, Adherence, and Retention. EBioMedicine. 2017;17:163-171.

PubMed Abstract»

Weissert R. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Neuroimmunol. 2011;231:73-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Wohl DA, Scheyett A, Golin CE, et al. Intensive case management before and after prison release is no more effective than comprehensive pre-release discharge planning in linking HIV-infected prisoners to care: a randomized trial. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:356-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2. Basic HIV Primary Care

Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Module 2 » Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Introduction

Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Ghanem KG, Emmanuel P, Zingman BS, Horberg MA. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with HIV: 2013 update by the HIV medicine association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:e1-34.

HIVMA»

Enger C, Graham N, Peng Y, et al. Survival from early, intermediate, and late stages of HIV infection. JAMA. 1996;275:1329-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Feinberg MB. Changing the natural history of HIV disease. Lancet. 1996;348:239-46.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Thompson MA, Horberg MA, Agwu AL, et al. Primary Care Guidance for Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus: 2020 Update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e3572-e3605

HIVMA»

Module 2 » Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Staging and Classifying the Patient's HIV Disease

HIVMA»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Schneider E, Whitmore S, Glynn KM, Dominguez K, Mitsch A, McKenna MT. Revised surveillance case definitions for HIV infection among adults, adolescents, and children aged <18 months and for HIV infection and AIDS among children aged 18 months to <13 years--United States, 2008. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008;57:1-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Initial Assessment: History Taking

HIVMA»

Module 2 » Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Initial Evaluation: Physical Examination

HIVMA»

Module 2 » Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Baseline Laboratory Studies

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Discordant results from reverse sequence syphilis screening--five laboratories, United States, 2006-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:133-7.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2010. HIV infection: detection, counseling, and referral. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010;59(RR-12):1-110.

MMWR»

Chamie G, Bonacini M, Bangsberg DR, et al. Factors associated with seronegative chronic hepatitis C virus infection in HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:577-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Craven DE, Steger KA, La Chapelle R, Allen DM. Factitious HIV infection: the importance of documenting infection. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:763-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Fairley CK, Spelman D, Street A, Jennens ID, Spicer WJ, Crowe S. CD4 lymphocyte numbers after splenectomy in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Int J STD AIDS. 1994;5:177-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Frank JE. Diagnosis and management of G6PD deficiency. Am Fam Physician. 2005;72:1277-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Hyle EP, Scott JA, Sax PE, et al. Clinical Impact and Cost-effectiveness of Genotype Testing at Human Immunodeficiency Virus Diagnosis in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70:1353-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Koullias Y, Sax PE, Fields NF, Walensky RP, Hyle EP. Should We Be Testing for Baseline Integrase Resistance in Patients Newly Diagnosed With Human Immunodeficiency Virus? Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:1274-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Ma JD, Lee KC, Kuo GM. HLA-B*5701 testing to predict abacavir hypersensitivity. PLoS Curr. 2010;2:RRN1203.

PubMed Abstract»

McGee KS, Okeke NL, Hurt CB, McKellar MS. Canary in the Coal Mine? Transmitted Mutations Conferring Resistance to All Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors in a Treatment-Naive Patient. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5:ofy294.

PubMed Abstract»

Mellors JW, Munoz A, Giorgi JV, et al. Plasma viral load and CD4+ lymphocytes as prognostic markers of HIV-1 infection. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:946-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Mellors JW, Rinaldo CR Jr, Gupta P, White RM, Todd JA, Kingsley LA. Prognosis in HIV-1 infection predicted by the quantity of virus in plasma. Science. 1996;272:1167-70.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: plasma HIV-1 RNA (viral load) and CD4 count monitoring. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and disease. Last updated May 2, 2024.

HIV.gov»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA clears first diagnostic tests for extragenital testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea. FDA news release. May 23, 2019.

U.S. FDA»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Screening Recommendations and Considerations Referenced in Treatment Guidelines and Original Sources. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Screening recommendations referenced in treatment guidelines and original recommendation sources. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 2 » Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Immunizations

HIVMA»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Bridges CB, Coyne-Beasley T. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended immunization schedule for adults aged 19 years or older - United States, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:110-2.

MMWR»

HIV.gov»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 1. Initial Evaluation

Summary Points

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). FDA approval of an extended period for administering VariZIG for postexposure prophylaxis of varicella. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61:212.

PubMed Abstract»

Eron J Jr, Yeni P, Gathe J Jr, et al. The KLEAN study of fosamprenavir-ritonavir versus lopinavir-ritonavir, each in combination with abacavir-lamivudine, for initial treatment of HIV infection over 48 weeks: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2006;368:476-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Perronne C, Lazanas M, Leport C, Simon F, Salmon D, Dallot A, Vildé JL. Varicella in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol. 1990;126:1033-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Pulido F, Estrada V, Baril JG, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of fosamprenavir plus ritonavir versus lopinavir/ritonavir in combination with abacavir/lamivudine over 144 weeks. HIV Clin Trials. 2009;10:76-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Wallace MR, Hooper DG, Pyne JM, Graves SJ, Malone JL. Varicella immunity and clinical disease in HIV-infected adults. South Med J. 1994;87:74-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Topic Overview

Greenspan D, Greenspan JS. HIV-related oral disease. Lancet. 1996;348:729-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Jeffers L, Webster-Cyriaque JY. Viruses and salivary gland disease (SGD): lessons from HIV SGD. Adv Dent Res. 2011;23:79-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Reznik DA. Oral manifestations of HIV disease. Top HIV Med. 2005 Dec-2006;13:143-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryder MI, Nittayananta W, Coogan M, Greenspan D, Greenspan JS. Periodontal disease in HIV/AIDS. Periodontol 2000. 2012;60:78-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Oral Health and HIV

Burger-Calderon R, Smith JS, Ramsey KJ, Webster-Cyriaque J. The Association between the History of HIV Diagnosis and Oral Health. J Dent Res. 2016;95:1366-1374.

PubMed Abstract»

Coulter ID, Heslin KC, Marcus M, et al. Associations of self-reported oral health with physical and mental health in a nationally representative sample of HIV persons receiving medical care. Qual Life Res. 2002;11:57-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Feller L, Lemmer J. Necrotizing periodontal diseases in HIV-seropositive subjects: pathogenic mechanisms. J Int Acad Periodontol. 2008;10:10-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Herrera D, Sanz M, Shapira L, et al. Association between periodontal diseases and cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and respiratory diseases: Consensus report of the Joint Workshop by the European Federation of Periodontology (EFP) and the European arm of the World Organization of Family Doctors (WONCA Europe). J Clin Periodontol. 2023;50:819-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Jeffers L, Webster-Cyriaque JY. Viruses and salivary gland disease (SGD): lessons from HIV SGD. Adv Dent Res. 2011;23:79-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Lamster IB, Grbic JT, Bucklan RS, Mitchell-Lewis D, Reynolds HS, Zambon JJ. Epidemiology and diagnosis of HIV-associated periodontal diseases. Oral Dis. 1997;3 Suppl 1:S141-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Mataftsi M, Skoura L, Sakellari D. HIV infection and periodontal diseases: an overview of the post-HAART era. Oral Dis. 2011;17:13-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Meer S. Human immunodeficiency virus and salivary gland pathology: an update. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2019;128:52-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Reznik DA. Oral manifestations of HIV disease. Top HIV Med. 2005 Dec-2006;13:143-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryder MI, Nittayananta W, Coogan M, Greenspan D, Greenspan JS. Periodontal disease in HIV/AIDS. Periodontol 2000. 2012;60:78-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Souza AJ, Gomes-Filho IS, Silva CALD, et al. Factors associated with dental caries, periodontitis and intra-oral lesions in individuals with HIV / AIDS. AIDS Care. 2018;30:578-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Younai FS, Marcus M, Freed JR, et al. Self-reported oral dryness and HIV disease in a national sample of patients receiving medical care. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2001;92:629-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Oral Candidiasis

Ben-Ami R, Berman J, Novikov A, et al. Multidrug-Resistant Candida haemulonii and C. auris, Tel Aviv, Israel. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23:195-203.

PubMed Abstract»

Bonacini M, Young T, Laine L. The causes of esophageal symptoms in human immunodeficiency virus infection. A prospective study of 110 patients. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:1567-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Chowdhary A, Sharma C, Duggal S, et al. New clonal strain of Candida auris, Delhi, India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:1670-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Klein RS, Harris CA, Small CB, Moll B, Lesser M, Friedland GH. Oral candidiasis in high-risk patients as the initial manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1984;311:354-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Maenza JR, Keruly JC, Moore RD, Chaisson RE, Gallant JE. Risk factors for fluconazole-resistant candidiasis in HIV-infected patients. J Infect Dis 1996;173:219-25.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pathirana RU, Friedman J, Norris HL, et al. Fluconazole-Resistant Candida auris Is Susceptible to Salivary Histatin 5 Killing and to Intrinsic Host Defenses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62:e01872-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Rex JH, Rinaldi MG, Pfaller MA. Resistance of Candida species to fluconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Satoh K, Makimura K, Hasumi Y, Nishiyama Y, Uchida K, Yamaguchi H. Candida auris sp. nov., a novel ascomycetous yeast isolated from the external ear canal of an inpatient in a Japanese hospital. Microbiol Immunol. 2009;53:41-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson GR 3rd, Patel PK, Kirkpatrick WR, et al. Oropharyngeal candidiasis in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109:488-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Oral Hairy Leukoplakia

Dias EP, Rocha ML, Silva JuniorA, et al. Oral hairy leukoplakia. Histopathologic and cytopathologic features of a subclinical phase. Am J Clin Pathol. 2000;114:395-401.

PubMed Abstract»

Ficarra G, Gaglioti D, Di Pietro M, Adler-Storthz K. Oral hairy leukoplakia: clinical aspects, histologic morphology and differential diagnosis. Head Neck. 1991;13:514-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Ficarra G, Romagnoli P, Piluso S, Milo D, Adler-Storthz K. Hairy leukoplakia with involvement of the buccal mucosa. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1992;27:855-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Husak R, Garbe C, Orfanos CE. Oral hairy leukoplakia in 71 HIV-seropositive patients: clinical symptoms, relation to immunologic status, and prognostic significance. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996;35:928-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Kabani S, Greenspan D, deSouza Y, Greenspan JS, Cataldo E. Oral hairy leukoplakia with extensive oral mucosal involvement. Report of two cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1989;67:411-5

PubMed Abstract»

Mabruk MJ, Antonio M, Flint SR, et al. A simple and rapid technique for the detection of Epstein-Barr virus DNA in HIV-associated oral hairy leukoplakia biopsies. J Oral Pathol Med. 2000;29:118-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Moura MD, Haddad JP, Senna MI, Ferreira e Ferreira E, Mesquita RA. A new topical treatment protocol for oral hairy leukoplakia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;110:611-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Tappuni AR. The global changing pattern of the oral manifestations of HIV. Oral Dis. 2020;26 Suppl 1:22-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Triantos D, Porter SR, Scully C, Teo CG. Oral hairy leukoplakia: clinicopathologic features, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and clinical significance. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25:1392-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Tugizov S, Herrera R, Veluppillai P, Greenspan J, Greenspan D, Palefsky JM. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected monocytes facilitate dissemination of EBV within the oral mucosal epithelium. J Virol. 2007;81:5484-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Walling DM, Flaitz CM, Nichols CM. Epstein-Barr virus replication in oral hairy leukoplakia: response, persistence, and resistance to treatment with valacyclovir. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:883-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Aphthous Stomatitis

Alegre M, Dalmau J, Domingo P, Roé E, Alomar A. Successful treatment of major oral aphthous ulcers in HIV-1 infection after highly active antiretroviral therapy. Int J Infect Dis. 2007;11:278-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Baccaglini L, Lalla RV, Bruce AJ, et al. Urban legends: recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2011;17:755-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Barrons RW. Treatment strategies for recurrent oral aphthous ulcers. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2001;58:41-50; quiz 51-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Brocklehurst P, Tickle M, Glenny AM, et al. Systemic interventions for recurrent aphthous stomatitis (mouth ulcers). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9:CD005411.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenspan D, Canchola AJ, MacPhail LA, Cheikh B, Greenspan JS. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on frequency of oral warts. Lancet. 2001;357(9266):1411-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenspan D, Greenspan JS. HIV-related oral disease. Lancet. 1996;348:729-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Jacobson JM, Greenspan JS, Spritzler J, et al. Thalidomide for the treatment of oral aphthous ulcers in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1487-93.

PubMed Abstract»

John G, Ollo D, Meyer P, Samer CF, Calmy A. Pulmonary embolism and iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome after co-administration of injected-triamcinolone and ritonavir. AIDS. 2013;27:2827-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kerr AR, Ship JA. Management strategies for HIV-associated aphthous stomatitis. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2003;4:669-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Liu C, Zhou Z, Liu G, et al. Efficacy and safety of dexamethasone ointment on recurrent aphthous ulceration. Am J Med. 2012;125:292-301.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiboski CH, Patton LL, Webster-Cyriaque JY, et al. The Oral HIV/AIDS Research Alliance: updated case definitions of oral disease endpoints. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:481-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith MH, Mintline M. Acute Immune-Mediated Lesions of the Oral Cavity. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2023;35:247-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Herpes Simplex Virus

HIV.gov»

Strick LB, Wald A, Celum C. Management of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in HIV type 1-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:347-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Tan DH, Raboud JM, Kaul R, Walmsley SL. Antiretroviral therapy is not associated with reduced herpes simplex virus shedding in HIV coinfected adults: an observational cohort study. BMJ Open. 2014;4:e004210.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Gonococcal infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Kaposi's Sarcoma

Cesarman E, Damania B, Krown SE, Martin J, Bower M, Whitby D. Kaposi sarcoma. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2019;5:9.

PubMed Abstract»

Di Lorenzo G, Konstantinopoulos PA, Pantanowitz L, Di Trolio R, De Placido S, Dezube BJ. Management of AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet Oncol. 2007;8:167-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Reznik DA. Oral manifestations of HIV disease. Top HIV Med. 2005 Dec-2006;13:143-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Silverberg MJ, Neuhaus J, Bower M, et al. Risk of cancers during interrupted antiretroviral therapy in the SMART study. AIDS. 2007;21:1957-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Sullivan SG, Hirsch HH, Franceschi S, et al. Kaposi sarcoma herpes virus antibody response and viremia following highly active antiretroviral therapy in the Swiss HIV Cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:2245-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Human Papillomavirus-Related Oral Warts and Oral Cancer

Beachler DC, Abraham AG, Silverberg MJ, et al. Incidence and risk factors of HPV-related and HPV-unrelated Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma in HIV-infected individuals. Oral Oncol. 2014;pii: S1368-8375(14)00272-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Beachler DC, Sugar EA, Margolick JB, et al. Risk factors for acquisition and clearance of oral human papillomavirus infection among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected adults. Am J Epidemiol. 2015;181:40-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Betz SJ. HPV-Related Papillary Lesions of the Oral Mucosa: A Review. Head Neck Pathol. 2019;13:80-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Burchell AN, Coutlée F, Tellier PP, Hanley J, Franco EL. Genital transmission of human papillomavirus in recently formed heterosexual couples. J Infect Dis. 2011;204:1723-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cameron JE, Hagensee M. HPV-Associated Oropharyngeal Cancer in the HIV/AIDS Patient. Cancer Treat Res. 2019;177:131-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Chaturvedi AK, Graubard BI, Broutian T, et al. Effect of Prophylactic Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination on Oral HPV Infections Among Young Adults in the United States. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36:262-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Gillison ML, Broutian T, Pickard RK, et al. Prevalence of oral HPV infection in the United States, 2009-2010. JAMA. 2012;307:693-703.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenspan D, Canchola AJ, MacPhail LA, Cheikh B, Greenspan JS. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on frequency of oral warts. Lancet. 2001;357(9266):1411-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Herrero R, Quint W, Hildesheim A, et al. Reduced prevalence of oral human papillomavirus (HPV) 4 years after bivalent HPV vaccination in a randomized clinical trial in Costa Rica. PLoS One. 2013;8:e68329.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaczmarczyk KH, Yusuf H. The impact of HPV vaccination on the prevention of oropharyngeal cancer: A scoping review. Community Dent Health. 2022;39:14-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Mooij SH, Boot HJ, Speksnijder AG, et al. Oral human papillomavirus infection in HIV-negative and HIV-infected MSM. AIDS. 2013;27:2117-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Reznik DA. Oral manifestations of HIV disease. Top HIV Med. 2005 Dec-2006;13:143-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Sonawane K, Suk R, Chiao EY, et al. Oral Human Papillomavirus Infection: Differences in Prevalence Between Sexes and Concordance With Genital Human Papillomavirus Infection, NHANES 2011 to 2014. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167:714-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilkin TJ, Chen H, Cespedes MS, et al. A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of the Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus Vaccine in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Adults Aged 27 Years or Older: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol A5298. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:1339-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Younai FS. Current Trends in the Incidence and Presentation of Oropharyngeal Cancer. J Calif Dent Assoc. 2016;44:93-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 2. Oral Manifestations

Mpox

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Tecovirimat (TPOXX) IND Information. Updated July 6, 2023.

CDC»

Curran KG, Eberly K, Russell OO, et al. HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Persons with Monkeypox - Eight U.S. Jurisdictions, May 17-July 22, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:1141-7.

CDC»

Farrar JL, Lewis NM, Houck K, et al. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Mpox in Persons Who Had Previously Received 1 Dose of JYNNEOS Vaccine and in Unvaccinated Persons - 29 U.S. Jurisdictions, May 22-September 3, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:1610-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Gandhi P A, Patro SK, Sandeep M, et al. Oral manifestation of the monkeypox virus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;56:101817.

PubMed Abstract»

Greseth MD, Traktman P. The life cycle of the vaccinia virus genome. Annu Rev Virol. 2022;9:239-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Grosenbach DW, Russo AT, Blum ED, Hruby DE. Emerging pharmacological strategies for treating and preventing mpox. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2023;16:843-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Huhn GD, Bauer AM, Yorita K, et al. Clinical characteristics of human monkeypox, and risk factors for severe disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1742-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Lansiaux E, Jain N, Laivacuma S, Reinis A. The virology of human monkeypox virus (hMPXV): A brief overview. Virus Res. 2022 Dec;322:198932.

PubMed Abstract»

Liu Q, Fu L, Wang B, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Human Mpox (Monkeypox) in 2022: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Pathogens. 2023;12:146.

PubMed Abstract»

Maldonado-Barrueco A, Sanz-González C, Gutiérrez-Arroyo A, et al. Sexually transmitted infections and clinical features in monkeypox (mpox) patients in Madrid, Spain. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2023;52:102544.

PubMed Abstract»

Mazzotta V, Scorzolini L, Falasca L, et al. Lymphofollicular lesions associated with monkeypox (Mpox) virus proctitis. Int J Infect Dis. 2023;130:48-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Mills MG, Juergens KB, Gov JP, et al. Evaluation and clinical validation of monkeypox (mpox) virus real-time PCR assays. J Clin Virol. 2023;159:105373.

PubMed Abstract»

Mitjà O, Ogoina D, Titanji BK, et al. Monkeypox. Lancet. 2023;401:60-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Philpott D, Hughes CM, Alroy KA, et al. Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Monkeypox Cases - United States, May 17-July 22, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:1018-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Philpott DC, Bonacci RA, Weidle PJ, et al. Low CD4 Count or Being Out of Care Increases the Risk for Mpox Hospitalization Among People with HIV and Mpox. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 Aug 17.Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Rao AK, Schrodt CA, Minhaj FS, et al. Interim Clinical Treatment Considerations for Severe Manifestations of Mpox - United States, February 2023. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72:232-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Sah R, Siddiq A, Reda A, et al. Oral manifestations of mpox: A common presentation? J Am Dent Assoc. 2023;154:279-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Shah J, Saak TM, Desai AN, et al. Otolaryngologic manifestations among MPOX patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Otolaryngol. 2023;44:103991.

PubMed Abstract»

Sherwat A, Brooks JT, Birnkrant D, Kim P. Tecovirimat and the Treatment of Monkeypox - Past, Present, and Future Considerations. N Engl J Med. 2022;387:579-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegrist EA, Sassine J. Antivirals With Activity Against Mpox: A Clinically Oriented Review. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:155-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Ulaeto D, Agafonov A, Burchfield J, et al. New nomenclature for mpox (monkeypox) and monkeypox virus clades. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23:273-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Beeson A, Styczynski A, Hutson CL, et al. Mpox respiratory transmission: the state of the evidence. Lancet Microbe. 2023;4:e277-e283.

PubMed Abstract»

Crothers K, Huang L. Pulmonary complications of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-infected patients. Respirology. 2009;14:486-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Leng CY, Low HC, Chua LL, et al. Human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) and HPV52 E6-specific immunity in HIV-infected adults on combination antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2017;18:321-331.

PubMed Abstract»

Lyman M, Forsberg K, Sexton DJ, et al. Worsening Spread of Candida auris in the United States, 2019 to 2021. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176:489-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Meintjes G, Wilkinson RJ, Morroni C, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of prednisone for paradoxical tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS. 2010;24:2381-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Ait-Khaled M, Rinaldi R, et al. Fosamprenavir/ritonavir in advanced HIV disease (TRIAD): a randomized study of high-dose, dual-boosted or standard dose fosamprenavir/ritonavir in HIV-1-infected patients with antiretroviral resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64:398-410.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Introduction

Cedeno-Laurent F, Gómez-Flores M, Mendez N, Ancer-Rodríguez J, Bryant JL, Gaspari AA, Trujillo JR. New insights into HIV-1-primary skin disorders. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:5.

PubMed Abstract»

Maurer TA. Dermatologic manifestations of HIV infection. Top HIV Med. 2005 Dec-2006 Jan;13:149-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Tappero JW, Perkins BA, Wenger JD, Berger TG. Cutaneous manifestations of opportunistic infections in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995;8:440-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Bacillary Angiomatosis

Koehler JE, Tappero JW. Bacillary angiomatosis and bacillary peliosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:612-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Mosepele M, Mazo D, Cohn J. Bartonella infection in immunocompromised hosts: immunology of vascular infection and vasoproliferation. Clin Dev Immunol. 2012;2012:612809.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Regnery RL, Childs JE, Koehler JE. Infections associated with Bartonella species in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21 Suppl 1:S94-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Koehler JE, Maguina C, Dolan MJ, Raoult D. Recommendations for treatment of human infections caused by Bartonella species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:1921-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Spach DH, Koehler JE. Bartonella-associated infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1998;12:137-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Cutaneous Drug Eruptions

Cedeno-Laurent F, Gómez-Flores M, Mendez N, Ancer-Rodríguez J, Bryant JL, Gaspari AA, Trujillo JR. New insights into HIV-1-primary skin disorders. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:5.

PubMed Abstract»

Luther J, Glesby MJ. Dermatologic adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy: recognition and management. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2007;8:221-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Rotunda A, Hirsch RJ, Scheinfeld N, Weinberg JM. Severe cutaneous reactions associated with the use of human immunodeficiency virus medications. Acta Derm Venereol. 2003;83:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Eosinophilic Folliculitis

Afonso JP, Tomimori J, Michalany NS, Nonogaki S, Porro AM. Pruritic papular eruption and eosinophilic folliculitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: a histopathological and immunohistochemical comparative study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;67:269-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Berger TG, Heon V, King C, Schulze K, Conant MA. Itraconazole therapy for human immunodeficiency virus-associated eosinophilic folliculitis. Arch Dermatol. 1995;131:358-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Cedeno-Laurent F, Gómez-Flores M, Mendez N, Ancer-Rodríguez J, Bryant JL, Gaspari AA, Trujillo JR. New insights into HIV-1-primary skin disorders. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:5.

PubMed Abstract»

Fearfield LA, Rowe A, Francis N, Bunker CB, Staughton RC. Itchy folliculitis and human immunodeficiency virus infection: clinicopathological and immunological features, pathogenesis and treatment. Br J Dermatol. 1999;141:3-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Simpson-Dent S, Fearfield LA, Staughton RC. HIV associated eosinophilic folliculitis--differential diagnosis and management. Sex Transm Infect. 1999;75:291-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Herpes Simplex Virus

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Baeten JM, Strick LB, Lucchetti A, et al. Herpes simplex virus (HSV)-suppressive therapy decreases plasma and genital HIV-1 levels in HSV-2/HIV-1 coinfected women: a randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:1804-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Balfour HH Jr. Antiviral Drugs. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1255-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Bernstein DI, Bellamy AR, Hook EW 3rd, et al. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, and antibody response to primary infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in young women. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:344-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:427-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Danve-Szatanek C, Aymard M, Thouvenot D, et al. Surveillance network for herpes simplex virus resistance to antiviral drugs: 3-year follow-up. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42:242-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany S, Mlaba N, Clayton T, et al. Impact of aciclovir on genital and plasma HIV-1 RNA in HSV-2/HIV-1 co-infected women: a randomized placebo-controlled trial in South Africa. AIDS. 2009;23:461-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Erlich KS, Mills J, Chatis P, et al. Acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus infections in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:293-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Gilbert C, Bestman-Smith J, Boivin G. Resistance of herpesviruses to antiviral drugs: clinical impacts and molecular mechanisms. Drug Resist Updat. 2002;5:88-114.

PubMed Abstract»

Haddow LJ, Dave B, Mindel A, et al. Increase in rates of herpes simplex virus type 1 as a cause of anogenital herpes in western Sydney, Australia, between 1979 and 2003. Sex Transm Infect. 2006;82:255-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Levin MJ, Bacon TH, Leary JJ. Resistance of herpes simplex virus infections to nucleoside analogues in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39 Suppl 5:S248-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Lingappa JR, Baeten JM, Wald A, et al. Daily acyclovir for HIV-1 disease progression in people dually infected with HIV-1 and herpes simplex virus type 2: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;375:824-33.

PubMed Abstract»

McQuillan G, Kruszon-Moran D, Flagg EW, Paulose-Ram R. Prevalence of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and Type 2 in Persons Aged 14-49: United States, 2015-2016. NCHS Data Brief. 2018;:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Moriuchi M, Moriuchi H, Williams R, Straus SE. Herpes simplex virus infection induces replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology. 2000;278:534-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Mujugira A, Magaret AS, Celum C, et al. Daily acyclovir to decrease herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) transmission from HSV-2/HIV-1 coinfected persons: a randomized controlled trial. J Infect Dis. 2013;208:1366-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Nagot N, Ouédraogo A, Foulongne V, et al. Reduction of HIV-1 RNA levels with therapy to suppress herpes simplex virus. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:790-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Nagot N, Ouedraogo A, Konate I, et al. Roles of clinical and subclinical reactivated herpes simplex virus type 2 infection and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-induced immunosuppression on genital and plasma HIV-1 levels. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:241-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Piret J, Boivin G. Resistance of herpes simplex viruses to nucleoside analogues: mechanisms, prevalence, and management. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:459-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Reyes M, Shaik NS, Graber JM, et al. Acyclovir-resistant genital herpes among persons attending sexually transmitted disease and human immunodeficiency virus clinics. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:76-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryder N, Jin F, McNulty AM, Grulich AE, Donovan B. Increasing role of herpes simplex virus type 1 in first-episode anogenital herpes in heterosexual women and younger men who have sex with men, 1992-2006. Sex Transm Infect. 2009;85:416-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Safrin S, Assaykeen T, Follansbee S, Mills J. Foscarnet therapy for acyclovir-resistant mucocutaneous herpes simplex virus infection in 26 AIDS patients: preliminary data. J Infect Dis. 1990;161:1078-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Safrin S, Crumpacker C, Chatis P, et al. A controlled trial comparing foscarnet with vidarabine for acyclovir-resistant mucocutaneous herpes simplex in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:551-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Strick LB, Wald A, Celum C. Management of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in HIV type 1-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:347-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Tan TY, Zou H, Ong DC, et al. Development and clinical validation of a multiplex real-time PCR assay for herpes simplex and varicella zoster virus. Diagn Mol Pathol. 2013;22:245-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: genital herpes. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Gonococcal infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Yi TJ, Walmsley S, Szadkowski L, et al. A randomized controlled pilot trial of valacyclovir for attenuating inflammation and immune activation in HIV/herpes simplex virus 2-coinfected adults on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1331-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Kaposi's Sarcoma

Bendle M, Pealing J, Papanastasopoulos P, Bower M. Liposomal anthracycline chemotherapy and the risk of second malignancies in patients with Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2014;74:611-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Bower M, Weir J, Francis N, et al. The effect of HAART in 254 consecutive patients with AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma. AIDS. 2009;23:1701-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Di Lorenzo G, Konstantinopoulos PA, Pantanowitz L, Di Trolio R, De Placido S, Dezube BJ. Management of AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet Oncol. 2007;8:167-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Gbabe OF, Okwundu CI, Dedicoat M, Freeman EE. Treatment of severe or progressive Kaposi's sarcoma in HIV-infected adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;8:CD003256.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Gail MH, et al. Cancer burden in the HIV-infected population in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103:753-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Silverberg MJ, Neuhaus J, Bower M, et al. Risk of cancers during interrupted antiretroviral therapy in the SMART study. AIDS. 2007;21:1957-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

MRSA Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

Crum-Cianflone NF, Burgi AA, Hale BR. Increasing rates of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections among HIV-infected persons. Int J STD AIDS. 2007;18:521-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Crum-Cianflone NF, Shadyab AH, Weintrob A, et al. Association of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization with high-risk sexual behaviors in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Medicine (Baltimore). 2011;90:379-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Kotpal R, Krishna PS, Bhalla P, Dewan R, Kaur R. Incidence and Risk Factors of Nasal Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in HIV-Infected Individuals in Comparison to HIV-Uninfected Individuals: A Case-Control Study. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2014;pii: 2325957414554005.

PubMed Abstract»

Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of america for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:e18-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Popovich KJ, Weinstein RA, Aroutcheva A, Rice T, Hota B. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and HIV: intersecting epidemics. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:979-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Shadyab AH, Crum-Cianflone NF. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections among HIV-infected persons in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a review of the literature. HIV Med. 2012;13:319-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Skiest D, Brown K, Hester J, Moore T, Crosby C, Mussa HR, Hoffman-Roberts H, Cooper T. Community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an urban HIV clinic. HIV Med. 2006;7:361-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Tappero JW, Perkins BA, Wenger JD, Berger TG. Cutaneous manifestations of opportunistic infections in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995;8:440-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Zervou FN, Zacharioudakis IM, Ziakas PD, Rich JD, Mylonakis E. Prevalence of and risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in HIV infection: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1302-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Molluscum Contagiosum

Bachmeyer C, Moguelet P, Baud F, Lescure FX. Efflorescence of facial molluscum contagiosum as a manifestation of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a patient with AIDS. Eur J Dermatol. 2009;19:257-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Baxter KF, Highet AS. Topical cidofovir and cryotherapy—combination treatment for recalcitrant molluscum contagiosum in a patient with HIV infection. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2004;18:230-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Calista D, Boschini A, Landi G. Resolution of disseminated molluscum contagiosum with Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART) in patients with AIDS. Eur J Dermatol. 1999;9:211-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen X, Anstey AV, Bugert JJ. Molluscum contagiosum virus infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:877-88.

PubMed Abstract»

Cotell SL, Roholt NS. Images in clinical medicine. Molluscum contagiosum in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:888.

PubMed Abstract»

Hicks CB, Myers SA, Giner J. Resolution of intractable molluscum contagiosum in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected patient after institution of antiretroviral therapy with ritonavir. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1023-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Meza-Romero R, Navarrete-Dechent C, Downey C. Molluscum contagiosum: an update and review of new perspectives in etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol. 2019;12:373-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Sen S, Goswami BK, Karjyi N, Bhaumik P. Disfiguring molluscum contagiosum in a HIV-positive patient responding to antiretroviral therapy. Indian J Dermatol. 2009;54:180-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Strauss RM, Doyle EL, Mohsen AH, Green ST. Successful treatment of molluscum contagiosum with topical imiquimod in a severely immunocompromised HIV-positive patient. Int J STD AIDS. 2001;12:264-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Psoriasis

Cedeno-Laurent F, Gómez-Flores M, Mendez N, Ancer-Rodríguez J, Bryant JL, Gaspari AA, Trujillo JR. New insights into HIV-1-primary skin disorders. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:5.

PubMed Abstract»

Mallon E. Retroviruses and psoriasis. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2000;13:103-107.

PubMed Abstract»

Menon K, Van Voorhees AS, Bebo BF Jr, et al. Psoriasis in patients with HIV infection: from the medical board of the National Psoriasis Foundation. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010;62:291-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Morar N, Willis-Owen SA, Maurer T, Bunker CB. HIV-associated psoriasis: pathogenesis, clinical features, and management. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010;10:470-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Scabies

Chosidow O. Clinical practices. Scabies. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1718-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Corbett EL, Crossley I, Holton J, Levell N, Miller R, De Cock KM. Crusted ("Norwegian") scabies in a specialist HIV unit: successful use of ivermectin and failure to prevent nosocomial transmission. Genitourin Med. 1996;72:115-7.

PubMed Abstract»

de Vries HJ. Skin as an indicator for sexually transmitted infections. Clin Dermatol. 2014;32:196-208.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernández-Sánchez M, Saeb-Lima M, Alvarado-de la Barrera C, Reyes-Terán G. Crusted scabies-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:323.

PubMed Abstract»

Heukelbach J, Feldmeier H. Scabies. Lancet. 2006;367:1767-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Meinking TL, Taplin D, Hermida JL, Pardo R, Kerdel FA. The treatment of scabies with ivermectin. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:26-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin M. Scabies in AIDS. Semin Dermatol. 1993;12:9-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Strong M, Johnstone P. Interventions for treating scabies. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;:CD000320.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021.Ectoparasitic infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Ectoparasitic infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Seborrheic Dermatitis

Cedeno-Laurent F, Gómez-Flores M, Mendez N, Ancer-Rodríguez J, Bryant JL, Gaspari AA, Trujillo JR. New insights into HIV-1-primary skin disorders. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:5.

PubMed Abstract»

Dunic I, Vesic S, Jevtovic DJ. Oral candidiasis and seborrheic dermatitis in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2004;5:50-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta AK, Bluhm R. Seborrheic dermatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2004;18:13-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Naldi L, Rebora A. Clinical practice. Seborrheic dermatitis. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:387-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Naldi L, Rebora A. Clinical practice. Seborrheic dermatitis. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:387-96. duplicate

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Herpes Zoster

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Balfour HH Jr, Bean B, Laskin OL, et al. Acyclovir halts progression of herpes zoster in immunocompromised patients. N Engl J Med. 1983;308:1448-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Benson C, Hua L, Andersen J, et al. ZOSTAVAX is generally safe and immunogenic in HIV+ adults virologically suppressed on ART: results of a phase 2, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Presented at the 19th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Seattle, March 5-8, 2012. Abstract 96.

CROI»

Breton G, Fillet AM, Katlama C, Bricaire F, Caumes E. Acyclovir-resistant herpes zoster in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: results of foscarnet therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27:1525-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, Liu JY, O'Malley PM, Underwood R, Holmberg SD. Herpes zoster and human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:1153-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated recommendations for use of VariZIG--United States, 2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:574-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Domingo P, Torres OH, Ris J, Vazquez G. Herpes zoster as an immune reconstitution disease after initiation of combination antiretroviral therapy in patients with human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection. Am J Med. 2001;110:605-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Donahue JG, Choo PW, Manson JE, Platt R. The incidence of herpes zoster. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:1605-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Forbes HJ, Bhaskaran K, Thomas SL, et al. Quantification of risk factors for postherpetic neuralgia in herpes zoster patients: A cohort study. Neurology. 2016;87:94-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older - United States, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:115-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Liu C, Wang C, Glesby MJ, et al. Effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy and its adherence on herpes zoster incidence: a longitudinal cohort study. AIDS Res Ther. 2013;10:34.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Tan TY, Zou H, Ong DC, et al. Development and clinical validation of a multiplex real-time PCR assay for herpes simplex and varicella zoster virus. Diagn Mol Pathol. 2013;22:245-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Weinstock DM, Boeckh M, Sepkowitz KA. Postexposure prophylaxis against varicella zoster virus infection among hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2006;12:1096-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 3. Cutaneous Manifestations

Warts (Anogenital)

MMWR»

Dolev JC, Maurer T, Springer G, et al. Incidence and risk factors for verrucae in women. AIDS. 2008;22:1213-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Meites E, Szilagyi PG, Chesson HW, Unger ER, Romero JR, Markowitz LE. Human Papillomavirus Vaccination for Adults: Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:698-702.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection: anogenital warts. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Anogenital warts. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Additional References

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Alpalhão M, Borges-Costa J, Filipe P. Psoriasis in HIV infection: an update. Int J STD AIDS. 2019;30:596-604.

PubMed Abstract»

Benson CA, Andersen JW, Macatangay BJC, et al. Safety and Immunogenicity of Zoster Vaccine Live in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Adults With CD4+ Cell Counts >200 Cells/mL Virologically Suppressed on Antiretroviral Therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:1712-9.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Cahn P, Andrade-Villanueva J, Arribas JR, et al. Dual therapy with lopinavir and ritonavir plus lamivudine versus triple therapy with lopinavir and ritonavir plus two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in antiretroviral-therapy-naive adults with HIV-1 infection: 48 week results of the randomised, open label, non-inferiority GARDEL trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:572-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Discordant results from reverse sequence syphilis screening--five laboratories, United States, 2006-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:133-7.

MMWR»

da Cunha Colombo ER, Mora DJ, Silva-Vergara ML. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) associated with Cryptococcus neoformans infection in AIDS patients. Mycoses. 2011;54:e178-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Di Lorenzo G, Konstantinopoulos PA, Pantanowitz L, Di Trolio R, De Placido S, Dezube BJ. Management of AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma. Lancet Oncol. 2007;8:167-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Dooling KL, Guo A, Patel M, et al. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices for Use of Herpes Zoster Vaccines. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:103-108.

PubMed Abstract»

Dunic I, Vesic S, Jevtovic DJ. Oral candidiasis and seborrheic dermatitis in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2004;5:50-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, Cross PL, Whitworth JA, Hayes RJ. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. AIDS. 2006;20:73-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Hemmige V, Arias CA, Pasalar S, Giordano TP. Skin and Soft Tissue Infection in People Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus in a Large, Urban, Public Healthcare System in Houston, Texas, 2009-2014. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70:1985-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Maguina C, Garcia PJ, Gotuzzo E, Cordero L, Spach DH. Bartonellosis (Carrión's disease) in the modern era. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:772-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Marra CM, Maxwell CL, Smith SL, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities in patients with syphilis: association with clinical and laboratory features. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:369-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Mullane KM, Winston DJ, Wertheim MS, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of heat-treated zoster vaccine (ZVHT) in immunocompromised adults. J Infect Dis. 2013;208:1375-85.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Silverberg MJ, Neuhaus J, Bower M, et al. Risk of cancers during interrupted antiretroviral therapy in the SMART study. AIDS. 2007;21:1957-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Wagoner N, Geisler WM, Bachmann LH, Hook EW. The effect of valacyclovir on HIV and HSV-2 in HIV-infected persons on antiretroviral therapy with previously unrecognised HSV-2. Int J STD AIDS. 2015;26:574-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Background

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccines in the Adult Immunization Schedule.

CDC»

Kemper CA, Haubrich R, Frank I, Dubin G, Buscarino C, McCutchan JA, Deresinski SC; California Collaborative Treatment Group. Safety and immunogenicity of hepatitis A vaccine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:1327-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Bridges CB, Harriman KH. Advisory committee on immunization practices recommended immunization schedule for adults aged 19 years or older--United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:91-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Riley LE, Harriman KH, Hunter P, Bridges CB. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:136-138.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroon FP, van Dissel JT, de Jong JC, van Furth R. Antibody response to influenza, tetanus and pneumococcal vaccines in HIV-seropositive individuals in relation to the number of CD4+ lymphocytes. AIDS. 1994;8:469-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Lange CG, Lederman MM, Medvik K, Asaad R, Wild M, Kalayjian R, Valdez H. Nadir CD4+ T-cell count and numbers of CD28+ CD4+ T-cells predict functional responses to immunizations in chronic HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 2003;17:2015-23.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Stanley SK, Ostrowski MA, Justement JS, et al. Effect of immunization with a common recall antigen on viral expression in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1222-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Su JR, Ng C, Lewis PW, Cano MV. Adverse events after vaccination among HIV-positive persons, 1990-2016. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0199229.

PubMed Abstract»

Sullivan PS, Hanson DL, Dworkin MS, Jones JL, Ward JW; Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease Investigators. Effect of influenza vaccination on disease progression among HIV-infected persons. AIDS. 2000;14:2781-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Wong EK, Bodsworth NJ, Slade MA, Mulhall BP, Donovan B. Response to hepatitis B vaccination in a primary care setting: influence of HIV infection, CD4+ lymphocyte count and vaccination schedule. Int J STD AIDS. 1996;7:490-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

COVID-19 Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Baden LR, El Sahly HM, Essink B, et al. Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2021;384:403-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhaskaran K, Rentsch CT, MacKenna B, et al. HIV infection and COVID-19 death: a population-based cohort analysis of UK primary care data and linked national death registrations within the OpenSAFELY platform. Lancet HIV. 2021;8:e24-e32.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of COVID-19 Vaccines in the United States. Interim Clinical Considerations. Last updated September 6, 2024.

CDC»

Dandachi D, Geiger G, Montgomery MW, et al. Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes in a Multicenter Registry of Patients With Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e1964-e1972.

PubMed Abstract»

Dolgin E. The tangled history of mRNA vaccines. Nature. 2021;597:318-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Ssentongo P, Heilbrunn ES, Ssentongo AE, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of COVID-19 in HIV-infected individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2021;11:6283.

PubMed Abstract»

Tesoriero JM, Swain CE, Pierce JL, et al. COVID-19 Outcomes Among Persons Living With or Without Diagnosed HIV Infection in New York State. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4:e2037069.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson MG, Stenehjem E, Grannis S, et al. Effectiveness of Covid-19 Vaccines in Ambulatory and Inpatient Care Settings. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:1355-71.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves and Authorizes Updated mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines to Better Protect Against Currently Circulating Variants. August 22, 2024.

U.S. FDA»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) Vaccines

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

Briere EC, Rubin L, Moro PL, Cohn A, Clark T, Messonnier N. Prevention and control of haemophilus influenzae type b disease: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-14.

MMWR»

Farley MM, Stephens DS, Brachman PS Jr, Harvey RC, Smith JD, Wenger JD. Invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease in adults. A prospective, population based surveillance. CDC Meningitis Surveillance Group. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:806-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroon FP, van Dissel JT, Rijkers GT, Labadie J, van Furth R. Antibody response to Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine in relation to the number of CD4+ T lymphocytes in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25:600-6.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Brennan J, Moore K, Sizemore L, et al. Notes from the Field: Acute Hepatitis A Virus Infection Among Previously Vaccinated Persons with HIV Infection - Tennessee, 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:328-9.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2020 Viral Hepatitis Surveillance Report—Hepatitis A Surveillance 2020. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Foster MA, Hofmeister MG, Kupronis BA, et al. Increase in Hepatitis A Virus Infections - United States, 2013-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:413-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Huang SH, Huang CH, Wang NC, et al. Early Seroreversion After 2 Doses of Hepatitis A Vaccination in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Positive Patients: Incidence and Associated Factors. Hepatology. 2019;70:465-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Matheny SC, Kingery JE. Hepatitis A. Am Fam Physician. 2012;86:1027-34.

PubMed Abstract»

McMahon BJ, Beller M, Williams J, Schloss M, Tanttila H, Bulkow L. A program to control an outbreak of hepatitis A in Alaska by using an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996;150:733-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Nelson NP, Weng MK, Hofmeister MG, et al. Prevention of Hepatitis A Virus Infection in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Ott JJ, Wiersma ST. Single-dose administration of inactivated hepatitis A vaccination in the context of hepatitis A vaccine recommendations. Int J Infect Dis. 2013;17:e939-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Overton ET, Nurutdinova D, Sungkanuparph S, Seyfried W, Groger RK, Powderly WG. Predictors of immunity after hepatitis A vaccination in HIV-infected persons. J Viral Hepat. 2007;14:189-93.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Wallace MR, Brandt CJ, Earhart KC, Kuter BJ, Grosso AD, Lakkis H, Tasker SA. Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine among HIV-infected subjects. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1207-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Weissman S, Feucht C, Moore BA. Response to hepatitis A vaccine in HIV-positive patients. J Viral Hepat. 2006;13:81-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

Halperin SA, Dobson S, McNeil S, et al. Comparison of the safety and immunogenicity of hepatitis B virus surface antigen co-administered with an immunostimulatory phosphorothioate oligonucleotide and a licensed hepatitis B vaccine in healthy young adults. Vaccine. 2006;24:20-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Halperin SA, Ward B, Cooper C, et al. Comparison of safety and immunogenicity of two doses of investigational hepatitis B virus surface antigen co-administered with an immunostimulatory phosphorothioate oligodeoxyribonucleotide and three doses of a licensed hepatitis B vaccine in healthy adults 18-55 years of age. Vaccine. 2012;30:2556-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Heyward WL, Kyle M, Blumenau J, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of an investigational hepatitis B vaccine with a Toll-like receptor 9 agonist adjuvant (HBsAg-1018) compared to a licensed hepatitis B vaccine in healthy adults 40-70 years of age. Vaccine. 2013;31:5300-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Jackson S, Lentino J, Kopp J, et al. Immunogenicity of a two-dose investigational hepatitis B vaccine, HBsAg-1018, using a toll-like receptor 9 agonist adjuvant compared with a licensed hepatitis B vaccine in adults. Vaccine. 2018;36:668-674.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim HN, Harrington RD, Crane HM, Dhanireddy S, Dellit TH, Spach DH. Hepatitis B vaccination in HIV-infected adults: current evidence, recommendations, and practical considerations. Int J STD AIDS. 2009;20:595-600.

PubMed Abstract»

Launay O, van der Vliet D, Rosenberg AR, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of 4 intramuscular double doses and 4 intradermal low doses vs standard hepatitis B vaccine regimen in adults with HIV-1: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2011;305:1432-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks KM, Kang M, Umbleja T, et al. Immunogenicity and Safety of Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Vaccine With a Toll-Like Receptor 9 Agonist Adjuvant in HBV Vaccine-Naïve People With Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;77:414-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Mast EE, Weinbaum CM, Fiore AE, et al; Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Part II: immunization of adults. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55(RR-16):1-33.

MMWR»

HIV.gov»

Piroth L, Launay O, Michel ML, et al. Vaccination Against Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) in HIV-1-Infected Patients With Isolated Anti-HBV Core Antibody: The ANRS HB EP03 CISOVAC Prospective Study. J Infect Dis. 2016;213:1735-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Rey D, Krantz V, Partisani M, et al. Increasing the number of hepatitis B vaccine injections augments anti-HBs response rate in HIV-infected patients. Effects on HIV-1 viral load. Vaccine. 2000;18:1161-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Schillie S, Harris A, Link-Gelles R, Romero J, Ward J, Nelson N. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices for Use of a Hepatitis B Vaccine with a Novel Adjuvant. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:455-458.

PubMed Abstract»

Schnittman SR, Zepf R, Cocohoba J, Sears D. Brief Report: Heplisav-B Seroprotection in People With HIV: A Single-Center Experience. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2021;86:445-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Thio CL, Seaberg EC, Skolasky R Jr, et al. HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, and risk of liver-related mortality in the Multicenter Cohort Study (MACS). Lancet. 2002;360:1921-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Whitaker JA, Rouphael NG, Edupuganti S, Lai L, Mulligan MJ. Strategies to increase responsiveness to hepatitis B vaccination in adults with HIV-1. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12:966-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Wiedmann M, Liebert UG, Oesen U, et al. Decreased immunogenicity of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology. 2000;31:230-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination

HIVMA»

Adler DH. The impact of HAART on HPV-related cervical disease. Curr HIV Res. 2010;8:493-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

Chaturvedi AK, Graubard BI, Broutian T, et al. Prevalence of Oral HPV Infection in Unvaccinated Men and Women in the United States, 2009-2016. JAMA. 2019;322:977-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Drolet M, Bénard É, Pérez N, Brisson M. Population-level impact and herd effects following the introduction of human papillomavirus vaccination programmes: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2019;394:497-509.

PubMed Abstract»

Gaisa M, Sigel K, Hand J, Goldstone S. High rates of anal dysplasia in HIV-infected men who have sex with men, women, and heterosexual men. AIDS. 2014;28:215-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Goss MA, Lievano F, Buchanan KM, Seminack MM, Cunningham ML, Dana A. Final report on exposure during pregnancy from a pregnancy registry for quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine. Vaccine. 2015;33:3422-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Hernández-Ramírez RU, Shiels MS, Dubrow R, Engels EA. Cancer risk in HIV-infected people in the USA from 1996 to 2012: a population-based, registry-linkage study. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e495-e504.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JA, Xu J, Kapogiannis BG, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of the human papillomavirus 6, 11, 16, 18 vaccine in HIV-infected young women. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:735-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Lei J, Ploner A, Elfström KM, et al. HPV Vaccination and the Risk of Invasive Cervical Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:1340-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Meites E, Kempe A, Markowitz LE. Use of a 2-Dose Schedule for Human Papillomavirus Vaccination - Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:1405-8.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Petrosky E, Bocchini JA Jr, Hariri S, et al. Use of 9-Valent Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine: Updated HPV Vaccination Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:300-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Scheller NM, Pasternak B, Mølgaard-Nielsen D, Svanström H, Hviid A. Quadrivalent HPV Vaccination and the Risk of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:1223-1233.

PubMed Abstract»

Schiller JT, Davies P. Delivering on the promise: HPV vaccines and cervical cancer. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2004;2:343-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Simard EP, Pfeiffer RM, Engels EA. Spectrum of cancer risk late after AIDS onset in the United States. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1337-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Toft L, Storgaard M, Müller M, et al. Comparison of the immunogenicity and reactogenicity of Cervarix and Gardasil human papillomavirus vaccines in HIV-infected adults: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial. J Infect Dis. 2013;209:1165-73.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA News Release: FDA approves expanded use of Gardasil 9 to include individuals 27 through 45 years old.

U.S. FDA»

Wilkin T, Lee JY, Lensing SY, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in HIV-1-infected men. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1246-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Influenza Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

Grohskopf LA, Alyanak E, Ferdinands JM, et al. Prevention and Control of Seasonal Influenza with Vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2021-22 Influenza Season. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70:1-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Grohskopf LA, Ferdinands JM, Blanton LH, Broder KR, Loehr J. Prevention and Control of Seasonal Influenza with Vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices — United States, 2024–25 Influenza Season. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2024:73;1–25.

CDC»

Grohskopf LA, Olsen SJ, Sokolow LZ, et al. Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) -- United States, 2014-15 influenza season. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:691-7.

MMWR»

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Lin JC, Nichol KL. Excess mortality due to pneumonia or influenza during influenza seasons among persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:441-6.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Angel JB, Walpita P, Lerch RA, et al. Vaccine-associated measles pneumonitis in an adult with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:104-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Angelo KM, Gastañaduy PA, Walker AT, et al. Spread of Measles in Europe and Implications for US Travelers. Pediatrics. 2019;144:e20190414.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Measles Cases and Outbreaks.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

McLean HQ, Fiebelkorn AP, Temte JL, Wallace GS. Prevention of measles, rubella, congenital rubella syndrome, and mumps, 2013: summary recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2013;62:1-34.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Scott P, Moss WJ, Gilani Z, Low N. Measles vaccination in HIV-infected children: systematic review and meta-analysis of safety and immunogenicity. J Infect Dis. 2011;204 Suppl 1:S164-78.

PubMed Abstract»

Sprauer MA, Markowitz LE, Nicholson JK, et al. Response of human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults to measles-rubella vaccination. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr (1988). 1993;6:1013-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Stermole BM, Grandits GA, Roediger MP, et al. Long-term safety and serologic response to measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination in HIV-1 infected adults. Vaccine. 2011;29:2874-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Watson JC, Hadler SC, Dykewicz CA, Reef S, Phillips L. Measles, mumps, and rubella--vaccine use and strategies for elimination of measles, rubella, and congenital rubella syndrome and control of mumps: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 1998;47(RR-8):1-57.

MMWR»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Meningococcal Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Notes from the field: serogroup C invasive meningococcal disease among men who have sex with men - New York City, 2010-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;61:1048.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated recommendations for use of meningococcal conjugate vaccines--Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60;72-6.

MMWR»

Harris CM, Wu HM, Li J, et al. Meningococcal Disease in Patients With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: A Review of Cases Reported Through Active Surveillance in the United States, 2000-2008. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3:ofw226.

PubMed Abstract»

Kamiya H, MacNeil J, Blain A, et al. Meningococcal disease among men who have sex with men - United States, January 2012-June 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:1256-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Lujan-Zilbermann J, Warshaw MG, Williams PL, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of 1 vs 2 doses of quadrivalent meningococcal conjugate vaccine in youth infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr. 2012;161:676-81.e2.

PubMed Abstract»

MacNeil JR, Rubin LG, Patton M, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Martin SW. Recommendations for Use of Meningococcal Conjugate Vaccines in HIV-Infected Persons - Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:1189-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Mbaeyi SA, Bozio CH, Duffy J, et al. Meningococcal Vaccination: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Nitta AT, Douglas JM, Arakere G, Ebens JB. Disseminated meningococcal infection in HIV-seropositive patients. AIDS. 1993;7:87-90.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rubis AB, Howie RL, Marasini D, Sharma S, Marjuki H, McNamara LA. Notes from the Field: Increase in Meningococcal Disease Among Persons with HIV - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72:663-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Mpox Vaccination

CDC»

HIV.gov»

Philpott D, Hughes CM, Alroy KA, et al. Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Monkeypox Cases - United States, May 17-July 22, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:1018-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Rao AK, Petersen BW, Whitehill F, et al. Use of JYNNEOS (Smallpox and Monkeypox Vaccine, Live, Nonreplicating) for Preexposure Vaccination of Persons at Risk for Occupational Exposure to Orthopoxviruses: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:734-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Tack DM, Karem KL, Montgomery JR, et al. Unintentional transfer of vaccinia virus associated with smallpox vaccines: ACAM2000(®) compared with Dryvax(®). Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2013;9:1489-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Pneumococcal Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Bamford A, Kelleher P, Lyall H, et al. Serological response to 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children and adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection. AIDS. 2014;28:2033-43.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Broder KR, Cortese MM, Iskander JK, et al. Preventing tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis among adolescents: use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccines recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-34.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Invasive pneumococcal disease in children 5 years after conjugate vaccine introduction--eight states, 1998-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57:144-8.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated recommendations for use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:13-5.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Updated recommendations for use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap) in pregnant women--Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:131-5.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Use of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine for adults with immunocompromising conditions: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61:816-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Dworkin MS, Ward JW, Hanson DL, Jones JL, Kaplan JE. Pneumococcal disease among human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons: incidence, risk factors, and impact of vaccination. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:794-800.

PubMed Abstract»

Flannery B, Heffernan RT, Harrison LH, et al. Changes in invasive pneumococcal disease among HIV-infected adults living in the era of childhood pneumococcal immunization. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

French N, Gordon SB, Mwalukomo T, et al. A trial of a 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in HIV-infected adults. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:812-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Hung CC, Chen MY, Hsieh SM, Hsiao CF, Sheng WH, Chang SC. Clinical experience of the 23-valent capsular polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccination in HIV-1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: a prospective observational study. Vaccine. 2004;22:2006-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Isaacman DJ, Fletcher MA, Fritzell B, Ciuryla V, Schranz J. Indirect effects associated with widespread vaccination of infants with heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7; Prevnar). Vaccine. 2006;25:2420-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Kobayashi M, Farrar JL, Gierke R, et al. Use of 15-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine and 20-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Among U.S. Adults: Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:109-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroon FP, van Dissel JT, Ravensbergen E, Nibbering PH, van Furth R. Enhanced antibody response to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine after prior immunization with conjugate pneumococcal vaccine in HIV-infected adults. Vaccine. 2000;19:886-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroon, FP, van Dissel JT, Labadie J, van Loon AM, van Furth R. Antibody response to diphtheria, tetanus, and poliomyelitis vaccines in relation to the number of CD4+ T lymphocytes in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21:1197-2003.

PubMed Abstract»

Marcus JL, Baxter R, Leyden WA, et al. Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Among HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Adults in a Large Integrated Healthcare System. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2016;30:463-470.

PubMed Abstract»

Mohapi L, Pinedo Y, Osiyemi O, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of V114, a 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, in adults living with HIV. AIDS. 2022;36:373-82.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Plosker GL. 13-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine: A Review of Its Use in Adults. Drugs. 2015;75:1535-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Alexandraki I, Nazir T, Foltzer M, Musher DM, Brown S, Thornby J. Response of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy to vaccination with 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:438-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Tomczyk S, Bennett NM, Stoecker C, et al. Use of 13-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine and 23-Valent Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine Among Adults Aged ≥65 Years: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:822-5.

MMWR»

Vadlamudi NK, Chen A, Marra F. Impact of the 13-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Among Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69:34-49.

PubMed Abstract»

Weil-Olivier C, van der Linden M, de Schutter I, Dagan R, Mantovani L. Prevention of pneumococcal diseases in the post-seven valent vaccine era: a European perspective. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:207.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Tetanus, Diphtheria and Pertussis (Tdap) Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2018;67:1-44.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Varicella Vaccination

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

MMWR»

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Marin M, Güris D, Chaves SS, Schmid S, Seward JF; Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevention of varicella: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2007;56(RR-4):1-4.

MMWR»

HIV.gov»

Weinmann S, Naleway AL, Koppolu P, et al. Incidence of Herpes Zoster Among Children: 2003-2014. Pediatrics. 2019;144:e20182917.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Zoster Vaccination

HIVMA»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Anderson TC, Masters NB, Guo A, et al. Use of Recombinant Zoster Vaccine in Immunocompromised Adults Aged ≥19 Years: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:80-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Berkowitz EM, Moyle G, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit candidate vaccine in HIV-infected adults: a phase 1/2a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Infect Dis. 2015;211:1279-87.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Buchbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, Liu JY, O'Malley PM, Underwood R, Holmberg SD. Herpes zoster and human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:1153-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Chlibek R, Bayas JM, Collins H, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of an AS01-adjuvanted varicella-zoster virus subunit candidate vaccine against herpes zoster in adults >=50 years of age. J Infect Dis. 2013;208:1953-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Cunningham AL, Lal H, Kovac M, et al. Efficacy of the Herpes Zoster Subunit Vaccine in Adults 70 Years of Age or Older. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:1019-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Donahue JG, Choo PW, Manson JE, Platt R. The incidence of herpes zoster. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:1605-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Dooling KL, Guo A, Patel M, et al. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices for Use of Herpes Zoster Vaccines. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:103-108.

PubMed Abstract»

Godeaux O, Kovac M, Shu D, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit candidate vaccine in adults ≥ 50 years of age with a prior history of herpes zoster: A phase III, non-randomized, open-label clinical trial. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2017;:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Lal H, Cunningham AL, Godeaux O, et al. Efficacy of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit vaccine in older adults. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:2087-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Moanna A, Rimland D. Decreasing incidence of herpes zoster in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:122-5.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Vafai A, Berger M. Zoster in patients infected with HIV: a review. Am J Med Sci. 2001;321:372-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Travel Vaccines

Kotton CN, Freedman DO. Immunocompromised travelers. In: CDC Health Information for International Travel (The Yellow Book). 2014

CDC»

Kotton CN. Vaccination and immunization against travel-related diseases in immunocompromised hosts. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2008;7:663-72.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Smith DS. Travel medicine and vaccines for HIV-infected travelers. Top Antivir Med. 2012;20:111-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 4. Immunizations in Adults

Contraindicated Vaccines

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Armbruster C, Junker W, Vetter N, Jaksch G. Disseminated bacille Calmette-Guérin infection in an AIDS patient 30 years after BCG vaccination. J Infect Dis. 1990;162:1216.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rotz LD, Dotson DA, Damon IK, Becher JA; Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Vaccinia (smallpox) vaccine: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2001;50(RR-10);1-25.

MMWR»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

HIVMA»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Buchbinder SP, Katz MH, Hessol NA, Liu JY, O'Malley PM, Underwood R, Holmberg SD. Herpes zoster and human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:1153-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Mpox Vaccination Basics. Updated May 5, 2023

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. JYNNEOS Vaccine. Mpox, Poxvirus. Published May 22, 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Staying Up to Date with COVID-19 Vaccines. Last updated July 3, 2024.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohn AC, MacNeil JR, Clark TA, et al. Prevention and control of meningococcal disease: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2013;62:1-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Crum-Cianflone NF, Wilkins K, Lee AW, et al. Long-term durability of immune responses after hepatitis A vaccination among HIV-infected adults. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:1815-23.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Deputy NP, Deckert J, Chard AN, et al. Vaccine Effectiveness of JYNNEOS against Mpox Disease in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2023;388:2434-2443.

PubMed Abstract»

Donahue JG, Choo PW, Manson JE, Platt R. The incidence of herpes zoster. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:1605-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Dooling KL, Guo A, Patel M, et al. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices for Use of Herpes Zoster Vaccines. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:103-108.

PubMed Abstract»

Faherty EAG, Holly T, Ogale YP, et al. Notes from the Field: Emergence of an Mpox Cluster Primarily Affecting Persons Previously Vaccinated Against Mpox - Chicago, Illinois, March 18-June 12, 2023. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 Jun 23;72:696-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Folaranmi T, Rubin L, Martin SW, Patel M, MacNeil JR. Use of Serogroup B Meningococcal Vaccines in Persons Aged ≥10 Years at Increased Risk for Serogroup B Meningococcal Disease: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:608-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Frey SE, Wald A, Edupuganti S, et al. Comparison of lyophilized versus liquid modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) formulations and subcutaneous versus intradermal routes of administration in healthy vaccinia-naïve subjects. Vaccine. 2015;33:5225-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant J, Brunetta J, Crofoot G, et al. Brief Report: Efficacy and Safety of Switching to a Single-Tablet Regimen of Elvitegravir/Cobicistat/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Alafenamide in HIV-1/Hepatitis B-Coinfected Adults. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;73:294-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Huhn GD, Bauer AM, Yorita K, et al. Clinical characteristics of human monkeypox, and risk factors for severe disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1742-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Hunter P. Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2019. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:182-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Lin KY, Hsieh SM, Sheng WH, et al. Comparable Serologic Responses to 2 Different Combinations of Inactivated Hepatitis A Virus Vaccines in HIV-Positive Patients During an Acute Hepatitis A Outbreak in Taiwan. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:734-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller L, Arakaki L, Ramautar A, et al. Elevated risk for invasive meningococcal disease among persons with HIV. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:30-7.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Payne AB, Ray LC, Cole MM, et al. Reduced Risk for Mpox After Receipt of 1 or 2 Doses of JYNNEOS Vaccine Compared with Risk Among Unvaccinated Persons - 43 U.S. Jurisdictions, July 31-October 1, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:1560-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Perciani CT, Farah B, Kaul R, et al. Live attenuated varicella-zoster virus vaccine does not induce HIV target cell activation. J Clin Invest. 2019;129:875-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Philpott D, Hughes CM, Alroy KA, et al. Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Monkeypox Cases - United States, May 17-July 22, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:1018-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;58:e44-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Sibailly TS, Wiktor SZ, Tsai TF, et al. Poor antibody response to yellow fever vaccination in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997;16:1177-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Siberry GK, Williams PL, Lujan-Zilbermann J, et al. Phase I/II, open-label trial of safety and immunogenicity of meningococcal (groups A, C, Y, and W-135) polysaccharide diphtheria toxoid conjugate vaccine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:391-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Staples JE, Bocchini JA Jr, Rubin L, Fischer M. Yellow Fever Vaccine Booster Doses: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:647-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Veit O, Domingo C, Niedrig M, et al. Long-term Immune Response to Yellow Fever Vaccination in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Infected Individuals Depends on HIV RNA Suppression Status: Implications for Vaccination Schedule. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:1099-1108.

PubMed Abstract»

Veit O, Niedrig M, Chapuis-Taillard C, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of yellow fever vaccination for 102 HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:659-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Obstructive Lung Disease

Boyd SD, Hadigan C, McManus M, et al. Influence of low-dose ritonavir with and without darunavir on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of inhaled beclomethasone. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63:355-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Gingo MR, Morris A, Crothers K. Human immunodeficiency virus-associated obstructive lung diseases. Clin Chest Med. 2013;34:273-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Halpin DMG, Criner GJ, Papi A, et al. Global Initiative for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. The 2020 GOLD Science Committee Report on COVID-19 and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;203:24-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Hirani A, Cavallazzi R, Vasu T, et al. Prevalence of obstructive lung disease in HIV population: a cross sectional study. Respir Med. 2011;105:1655-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Ho T, Cusack RP, Chaudhary N, Satia I, Kurmi OP. Under- and over-diagnosis of COPD: a global perspective. Breathe (Sheff). 2019;15:24-35.

PubMed Abstract»

National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert Panel Report 3 (EPR-3): Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma-Summary Report 2007. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;120:S94-138.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, Weinberger SE, et al. Diagnosis and management of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a clinical practice guideline update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society. Ann Intern Med. 2011;155:179-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh D, Agusti A, Anzueto A, et al. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: the GOLD science committee report 2019. Eur Respir J. 2019;53:pii: 1900164.

PubMed Abstract»

Sullivan J, Pravosud V, Mannino DM, Siegel K, Choate R, Sullivan T. National and State Estimates of COPD Morbidity and Mortality - United States, 2014-2015. Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis. 2018;5:324-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Venkatesan P. GOLD COPD report: 2023 update. Lancet Respir Med. 2023;11:18.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Topic Overview

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Cancer Screening

Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Ghanem KG, et al. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with HIV: 2013 update by the HIV medicine association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;58:e1-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Aberle DR, Adams AM, Berg CD, et al. Reduced lung-cancer mortality with low-dose computed tomographic screening. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:395-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Anal Cancer HSIL Outcomes Research (ANCHOR) Study.

ANCHOR Study»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Surveillance Report, 2005;vol.17. Published 2007.

CDC»

Clifford GM, Georges D, Shiels MS, et al. A meta-analysis of anal cancer incidence by risk group: Toward a unified anal cancer risk scale. Int J Cancer. 2021;148:38-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Colón-López V, Shiels MS, Machin M, et al. Anal Cancer Risk Among People With HIV Infection in the United States. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36:68-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Davidson KW, Barry MJ, Mangione CM, et al. Screening for Colorectal Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2021;325:1965-77.

PubMed Abstract»

de Martel C, Shiels MS, Franceschi S, et al. Cancers attributable to infections among adults with HIV in the United States. AIDS. 2015;29:2173-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Engels EA, Biggar RJ, Hall HI, et al. Cancer risk in people infected with human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Int J Cancer. 2008;123:187-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Galli L, Spagnuolo V, Poli A, et al. Use of statins and risk of AIDS-defining and non-AIDS-defining malignancies among HIV-1 infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2014;28:2407-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Grulich AE, van Leeuwen MT, Falster MO, Vajdic CM. Incidence of cancers in people with HIV/AIDS compared with immunosuppressed transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2007;370:59-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta S, Lieberman D, Anderson JC, et al. Recommendations for Follow-Up After Colonoscopy and Polypectomy: A Consensus Update by the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology. 2020;158:1131-53.e5.

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta SK, Eustace JA, Winston JA, et al. Guidelines for the management of chronic kidney disease in HIV-infected patients: recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1559-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Harris TG, Burk RD, Palefsky JM, et al. Incidence of cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions associated with HIV serostatus, CD4 cell counts, and human papillomavirus test results. JAMA. 2005;293:1471-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Hernández-Ramírez RU, Shiels MS, Dubrow R, Engels EA. Cancer risk in HIV-infected people in the USA from 1996 to 2012: a population-based, registry-linkage study. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e495-e504.

PubMed Abstract»

Keller MJ, Burk RD, Xie X, et al. Risk of cervical precancer and cancer among HIV-infected women with normal cervical cytology and no evidence of oncogenic HPV infection. JAMA. 2012;308:362-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Kowalska JD, Reekie J, Mocroft A, et al. Long-term exposure to combination antiretroviral therapy and risk of death from specific causes: no evidence for any previously unidentified increased risk due to antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2012;26:315-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee JK, Liles EG, Bent S, Levin TR, Corley DA. Accuracy of fecal immunochemical tests for colorectal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:171.

PubMed Abstract»

Lieberman DA, Rex DK, Winawer SJ, Giardiello FM, Johnson DA, Levin TR. Guidelines for colonoscopy surveillance after screening and polypectomy: a consensus update by the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology. 2012;143:844-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Lin JS, Piper MA, Perdue LA, et al. Screening for Colorectal Cancer: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2016;315:2576-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Marcus JL, Chao CR, Leyden WA, et al. Prostate cancer incidence and prostate-specific antigen testing among HIV-positive and HIV-negative men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;66:495-502.

PubMed Abstract»

Massad LS, Einstein MH, Huh WK, et al. 2012 updated consensus guidelines for the management of abnormal cervical cancer screening tests and cancer precursors. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;121:829-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Masur H, Brooks JT, Benson CA, Holmes KK, Pau AK, Kaplan JE. Prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: Updated Guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institutes of Health, and HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1308-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyer VA. Screening for lung cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:330-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyer VA. Screening for prostate cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157:120-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Myers ER, Moorman P, Gierisch JM, et al. Benefits and Harms of Breast Cancer Screening: A Systematic Review. JAMA. 2015;314:1615-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Oeffinger KC, Fontham ET, Etzioni R, et al. Breast Cancer Screening for Women at Average Risk: 2015 Guideline Update From the American Cancer Society. JAMA. 2015;314:1599-614.

PubMed Abstract»

Overton ET, Kitch D, Benson CA, et al. Effect of statin therapy in reducing the risk of serious non-AIDS-defining events and nonaccidental death. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1471-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Palefsky JM, Lee JY, Jay N, et al. Treatment of Anal High-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions to Prevent Anal Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:2273-82.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pantanowitz L, Dezube BJ. Evolving spectrum and incidence of non-AIDS-defining malignancies. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2009;4:27-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Patel P, Hanson DL, Sullivan PS, et al. Incidence of types of cancer among HIV-infected persons compared with the general population in the United States, 1992-2003. Ann Intern Med. 2008;148:728-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Patel SG, May FP, Anderson JC, et al. Updates on Age to Start and Stop Colorectal Cancer Screening: Recommendations From the U.S. Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer. Am J Gastroenterol. 2022;117:57-69.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Pinsky PF, Church TR, Izmirlian G, Kramer BS. The National Lung Screening Trial: results stratified by demographics, smoking history, and lung cancer histology. Cancer. 2013;119:3976-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Reddy KP, Kong CY, Hyle EP, et al. Lung Cancer Mortality Associated With Smoking and Smoking Cessation Among People Living With HIV in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177:1613-1621.

PubMed Abstract»

Rex DK, Boland CR, Dominitz JA, et al. Colorectal Cancer Screening: Recommendations for Physicians and Patients From the U.S. Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology. 2017;153:307-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Rex DK, Johnson DA, Anderson JC, Schoenfeld PS, Burke CA, Inadomi JM. American College of Gastroenterology guidelines for colorectal cancer screening 2009 [corrected]. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104:739-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Robbins HA, Pfeiffer RM, Shiels MS, Li J, Hall HI, Engels EA. Excess cancers among HIV-infected people in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2015;107:.

PubMed Abstract»

Saslow D, Solomon D, Lawson HW, et al. American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer. Am J Clin Pathol. 2012;137:516-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiels MS, Islam JY, Rosenberg PS, Hall HI, Jacobson E, Engels EA. Projected Cancer Incidence Rates and Burden of Incident Cancer Cases in HIV-Infected Adults in the United States Through 2030. Ann Intern Med. 2018;168:866-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Gail MH, et al. Cancer burden in the HIV-infected population in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103:753-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegel RL, Miller KD, Goding Sauer A, et al. Colorectal cancer statistics, 2020. CA Cancer J Clin. 2020;70:145-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Sigel K, Makinson A, Thaler J. Lung cancer in persons with HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2017;12:31-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Sigel K, Pitts R, Crothers K. Lung Malignancies in HIV Infection. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;37:267-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Silverberg MJ, Neuhaus J, Bower M, et al. Risk of cancers during interrupted antiretroviral therapy in the SMART study. AIDS. 2007;21:1957-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Siu AL. Screening for Breast Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:279-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Brooks D, Cokkinides V, Saslow D, Brawley OW. Cancer screening in the United States, 2013: a review of current American Cancer Society guidelines, current issues in cancer screening, and new guidance on cervical cancer screening and lung cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013;63:88-105.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

U.S. Cancer Statistics Working Group. U.S. Cancer Statistics Data Visualizations Tool, based on 2021 submission data (1999-2019): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Cancer Institute.

U.S. Cancer Statistics»

U.S. Cancer Statistics Working Group. United States Cancer Statistics: 1999–2013 Incidence and Mortality Web-based Report. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Cancer Institute:2016.

CDC»

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for breast cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2009;151:716-26, W-236.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for colorectal cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:627-37.

PubMed Abstract»

United States Cancer Statistics. U.S. Cancer Statistics: Highlights from 2016 Incidence. U.S. Cancer Statistics Data Briefs, No. 8. June 2019

CDC»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Bibbins-Domingo K, Grossman DC, et al. Screening for Colorectal Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2016;315:2564-75.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Grossman DC, Curry SJ, et al. Screening for Prostate Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2018;319:1901-1913.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Krist AH, Davidson KW, et al. Screening for Lung Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2021;325:962-70.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force; Nicholson WK, Silverstein M, et al. Screening for Breast Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2024;331:1918-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Voutsadakis IA, Silverman LR. Breast cancer in HIV-positive women: a report of four cases and review of the literature. Cancer Invest. 2002;20:452-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Wender R, Fontham ET, Barrera E Jr, et al. American Cancer Society lung cancer screening guidelines. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013;63:107-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Whitlock EP, Lin JS, Liles E, Beil TL, Fu R. Screening for colorectal cancer: a targeted, updated systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:638-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Winawer SJ, Zauber AG, Fletcher RH, et al. Guidelines for colonoscopy surveillance after polypectomy: a consensus update by the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer and the American Cancer Society. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:1872-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Wolf AMD, Fontham ETH, Church TR, et al. Colorectal cancer screening for average-risk adults: 2018 guideline update from the American Cancer Society. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68:250-281.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Cardiovascular

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74:1376-1414.

PubMed Abstract»

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74:e177-e232.

PubMed Abstract»

ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman L, Mafham M, et al. Effects of Aspirin for Primary Prevention in Persons with Diabetes Mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:1529-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Bibbins-Domingo K. Aspirin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Colorectal Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:836-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Bozzette SA. HIV and Cardiovascular Disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:92-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Cruciani M, Zanichelli V, Serpelloni G, et al. Abacavir use and cardiovascular disease events: a meta-analysis of published and unpublished data. AIDS. 2011;25:1993-2004.

PubMed Abstract»

Ding X, Andraca-Carrera E, Cooper C, et al. No association of abacavir use with myocardial infarction: findings of an FDA meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:441-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Dubé MP, Stein JH, Aberg JA, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of dyslipidemia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the HIV Medical Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America and the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:613-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Dubé MP, Wu JW, Aberg JA, et al. Safety and efficacy of extended-release niacin for the treatment of dyslipidaemia in patients with HIV infection: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5148. Antivir Ther. 2006;11:1081-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Durand M, Sheehy O, Baril JG, Lelorier J, Tremblay CL. Association between HIV infection, antiretroviral therapy, and risk of acute myocardial infarction: a cohort and nested case-control study using Québec's public health insurance database. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;57:245-53.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 10. Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S158-S190.

PubMed Abstract»

Feinstein MJ, Hsue PY, Benjamin LA, et al. Characteristics, Prevention, and Management of Cardiovascular Disease in People Living With HIV: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2019;140:e98-e124.

PubMed Abstract»

Filipkowski AM, Kundu S, Eden SK, et al. Association of HIV Infection and Incident Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Among 143 001 Veterans. Circulation. 2023 May 25. [Online Ahead of Print]

PubMed Abstract»

Freiberg MS, Chang CC, Kuller LH, et al. HIV infection and the risk of acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:614-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Gaziano JM, Brotons C, Coppolecchia R, et al. Use of aspirin to reduce risk of initial vascular events in patients at moderate risk of cardiovascular disease (ARRIVE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2018;392:1036-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK. Cardiovascular Disease in HIV: Traditional and Nontraditional Risk Factors. Top Antivir Med. 2014;22:676-679.

PubMed Abstract»

Hsue PY, Waters DD. HIV infection and coronary heart disease: mechanisms and management. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2019;16:745-759.

PubMed Abstract»

Klein D, Hurley LB, Quesenberry CP Jr, Sidney S. Do protease inhibitors increase the risk for coronary heart disease in patients with HIV-1 infection? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:471-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Knickelbine T, Miedema MD. Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: is it time to move on? Curr Opin Cardiol. 2019;34:510-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Lichtenstein KA, Armon C, Buchacz K, et al. Low CD4+ T cell count is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease events in the HIV outpatient study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:435-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Lo J, Abbara S, Shturman L, et al. Increased prevalence of subclinical coronary atherosclerosis detected by coronary computed tomography angiography in HIV-infected men. AIDS. 2010;24:243-53.

PubMed Abstract»

McNeil JJ, Nelson MR, Woods RL, et al. Effect of Aspirin on All-Cause Mortality in the Healthy Elderly. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:1519-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Monforte Ad, Reiss P, Ryom L, et al. Atazanavir is not associated with an increased risk of cardio- or cerebrovascular disease events. AIDS. 2013;27:407-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Obel N, Farkas DK, Kronborg G, et al. Abacavir and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy: a population-based nationwide cohort study. HIV Med. 2010;11:130-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Owens DK, Davidson KW, Krist AH, et al. Screening for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2019;322:2211-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Sabin CA, Worm SW, Weber R, et al. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients enrolled in the D:A:D study: a multi-cohort collaboration. Lancet. 2008;371:1417-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Shah ASV, Stelzle D, Lee KK, et al. Global Burden of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in People Living With HIV. Circulation. 2018;138:1100-12.

PubMed Abstract»

SMART/INSIGHT; DAD Study Groups. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2008;22:F17-24.

PubMed Abstract»

So-Armah K, Benjamin LA, Bloomfield GS, et al. HIV and cardiovascular disease. Lancet HIV. 2020;7:e279-e293.

PubMed Abstract»

Subramanian S, Tawakol A, Burdo TH, et al. Arterial inflammation in patients with HIV. JAMA. 2012;308:379-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Tang W, Yao L, Roetker NS, et al. Lifetime Risk and Risk Factors for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm in a 24-Year Prospective Study: The ARIC Study (Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities). Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2016 Dec;36:2468-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Triant VA, Lee H, Hadigan C, Grinspoon SK. Increased acute myocardial infarction rates and cardiovascular risk factors among patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:2506-12.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Davidson KW, Barry MJ, et al. Aspirin Use to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2022;327:1577-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Worm SW, Sabin C, Weber R, et al. Risk of myocardial infarction in patients with HIV infection exposed to specific individual antiretroviral drugs from the 3 major drug classes: the data collection on adverse events of anti-HIV drugs (D:A:D) study. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:318-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Zanni MV, Abbara S, Lo J, et al. Increased coronary atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability by coronary computed tomography angiography in HIV-infected men. AIDS. 2013;27:1263-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Zucker EJ, Misono AS, Prabhakar AM. Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Screening Practices: Impact of the 2014 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendations. J Am Coll Radiol. 2017;14:868-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Diabetes Mellitus

Albright ES, Ovalle F, Bell DS. Artificially low hemoglobin A1c caused by use of dapsone. Endocr Pract. 2002;8:370-2.

PubMed Abstract»

ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman L, Mafham M, et al. Effects of Aspirin for Primary Prevention in Persons with Diabetes Mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:1529-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2018 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2018;137:e67-e492.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, Cole SR, Li X, et al. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence and incidence of diabetes mellitus in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1179-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Cheng J, Zhang W, Zhang X, et al. Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular deaths, and cardiovascular events in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:773-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Davidson KW, Barry MJ, Mangione CM, et al. Screening for Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2021;326:736-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Eckhardt BJ, Holzman RS, Kwan CK, Baghdadi J, Aberg JA. Glycated Hemoglobin A(1c) as screening for diabetes mellitus in HIV-infected individuals. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012;26:197-201.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 1. Improving Care and Promoting Health in Populations: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S10-S18.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 10. Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S158-S190.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 12. Retinopathy, Neuropathy, and Foot Care: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S203-S215.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S19-S40.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 3. Prevention or Delay of Type 2 Diabetes and Associated Comorbidities: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S41-S48.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 4. Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S49-S67.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 5. Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S68-S96.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 6. Glycemic Targets: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S97-S110.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S111-S127.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 8. Obesity and Weight Management for the Prevention and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S128-S139.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 9. Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S140-S157.

PubMed Abstract»

Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, et al. 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2019;139:e1082-e1143.

PubMed Abstract»

Hemmingsen B, Lund SS, Gluud C, et al. Targeting intensive glycaemic control versus targeting conventional glycaemic control for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;11:CD008143.

PubMed Abstract»

James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311:507-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim PS, Woods C, Georgoff P, et al. A1C underestimates glycemia in HIV infection. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1591-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Lucas GM, Ross MJ, Stock PG, et al. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients Infected With HIV: 2014 Update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:e96-e138.

PubMed Abstract»

Monroe AK, Glesby MJ, Brown TT. Diagnosing and managing diabetes in HIV-infected patients: current concepts. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:453-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Siu AL. Screening for Abnormal Blood Glucose and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163:861-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2013;129(25 Suppl 2):S46-8.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Tsao CW, Aday AW, Almarzooq ZI, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2022 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2022;145:e153-e639.

PubMed Abstract»

Zoungas S, Chalmers J, Neal B, et al. Follow-up of blood-pressure lowering and glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:1392-406.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Hypertension

PubMed Abstract»

Armah KA, Chang CC, Baker JV, et al. Prehypertension, hypertension, and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in HIV-infected and -uninfected veterans. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;58:121-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Blaha MJ, Chiuve SE, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2017 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;135:e146-e603.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2018 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2018;137:e67-e492.

PubMed Abstract»

Cattelan AM, Trevenzoli M, Sasset L, Rinaldi L, Balasso V, Cadrobbi P. Indinavir and systemic hypertension. AIDS. 2001;15:805-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003;289:2560-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Chow DC, Souza SA, Chen R, Richmond-Crum SM, Grandinetti A, Shikuma C. Elevated blood pressure in HIV-infected individuals receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. HIV Clin Trials. 2003;4:411-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Eckel RH, Jakicic JM, Ard JD, et al. 2013 AHA/ACC guideline on lifestyle management to reduce cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2013;129:S76-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Khalsa A, Karim R, Mack WJ, et al. Correlates of prevalent hypertension in a large cohort of HIV-infected women: Women's Interagency HIV Study. AIDS. 2007;21:2539-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Krauskopf K, Van Natta ML, Danis RP, et al. Correlates of hypertension in patients with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2013;12:325-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Medina-Torne S, Ganesan A, Barahona I, Crum-Cianflone NF. Hypertension is common among HIV-infected persons, but not associated with HAART. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic). 2011;11:20-5.

PubMed Abstract»

National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Fact Sheet. July 2020.

National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)»

Nüesch R, Wang Q, Elzi L, et al. Risk of cardiovascular events and blood pressure control in hypertensive HIV-infected patients: Swiss HIV Cohort Study (SHCS). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:396-404.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, Rich R, Humphrey LL, Frost J, Forciea MA. Pharmacologic Treatment of Hypertension in Adults Aged 60 Years or Older to Higher Versus Lower Blood Pressure Targets: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians and the American Academy of Family Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2017;166:430-437.

PubMed Abstract»

Thiébaut R, El-Sadr WM, Friis-Møller N, et al. Predictors of hypertension and changes of blood pressure in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther. 2005;10:811-23.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Unger T, Borghi C, Charchar F, et al. 2020 International Society of Hypertension global hypertension practice guidelines. J Hypertens. 2020;38:982-1004.

PubMed Abstract»

Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;71:2199-2269.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Hyperlipidemia

PubMed Abstract»

Aberg JA, Zackin RA, Brobst SW, et al. A randomized trial of the efficacy and safety of fenofibrate versus pravastatin in HIV-infected subjects with lipid abnormalities: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study 5087. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2005;21:757-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Blaha MJ, Chiuve SE, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2017 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;135:e146-e603.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2018 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2018;137:e67-e492.

PubMed Abstract»

Bergeron N, Phan BA, Ding Y, Fong A, Krauss RM. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibition: a new therapeutic mechanism for reducing cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation. 2015;132:1648-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Bozzette SA. HIV and Cardiovascular Disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:92-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Burnett JR, Hooper AJ. PCSK9 - A Journey to Cardiovascular Outcomes. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:2161-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Cannon CP, Blazing MA, Giugliano RP, et al. Ezetimibe Added to Statin Therapy after Acute Coronary Syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:2387-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease and Prevention. Vital signs: prevalence, treatment, and control of high levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol--United States, 1999-2002 and 2005-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:109-14.

MMWR»

PubMed Abstract»

Erlandson KM, Jiang Y, Debanne SM, McComsey GA. Effects of 96 Weeks of Rosuvastatin on Bone, Muscle, and Fat in HIV-Infected Adults on Effective Antiretroviral Therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2016;32:311-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Erlandson KM, Jiang Y, Debanne SM, McComsey GA. Effects of randomized rosuvastatin compared with placebo on bone and body composition among HIV-infected adults. AIDS. 2015;29:175-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Eron JJ, Young B, Cooper DA, et al. Switch to a raltegravir-based regimen versus continuation of a lopinavir-ritonavir-based regimen in stable HIV-infected patients with suppressed viraemia (SWITCHMRK 1 and 2): two multicentre, double-blind, randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2010;375:396-407.

PubMed Abstract»

Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive Summary of The Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Feinstein MJ, Achenbach CJ, Stone NJ, Lloyd-Jones DM. A Systematic Review of the Usefulness of Statin Therapy in HIV-Infected Patients. Am J Cardiol. 2015; pii: S0002-9149(15)00980-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Fichtenbaum CJ, Yeh TM, Evans SR, Aberg JA. Treatment with pravastatin and fenofibrate improves atherogenic lipid profiles but not inflammatory markers in ACTG 5087. J Clin Lipidol. 2010;4:279-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Gatell J, Salmon-Ceron D, Lazzarin A, et al. Efficacy and safety of atazanavir-based highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with virologic suppression switched from a stable, boosted or unboosted protease inhibitor treatment regimen: the SWAN Study (AI424-097) 48-week results. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1484-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Gerber JG, Kitch DW, Fichtenbaum CJ, et al. Fish oil and fenofibrate for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy: results of ACTG A5186. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;47:459-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK, Fitch KV, Overton ET, et al. Rationale and design of the Randomized Trial to Prevent Vascular Events in HIV (REPRIEVE). Am Heart J. 2019;212:23-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK, Fitch KV, Zanni MV, et al. Pitavastatin to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease in HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2023;389:687-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK. Cardiovascular Disease in HIV: Traditional and Nontraditional Risk Factors. Top Antivir Med. 2014;22:676-679.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoffmann U, Lu MT, Olalere D, et al. Rationale and design of the Mechanistic Substudy of the Randomized Trial to Prevent Vascular Events in HIV (REPRIEVE): Effects of pitavastatin on coronary artery disease and inflammatory biomarkers. Am Heart J. 2019;212:1-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Kazi DS, Penko J, Coxson PG, Guzman D, Wei PC, Bibbins-Domingo K. Cost-Effectiveness of Alirocumab: A Just-in-Time Analysis Based on the ODYSSEY Outcomes Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:221-229.

PubMed Abstract»

Keaney JF Jr, Curfman GD, Jarcho JA. A pragmatic view of the new cholesterol treatment guidelines. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:275-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kotler DP. HIV and antiretroviral therapy: lipid abnormalities and associated cardiovascular risk in HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49 Suppl 2:S79-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Landray MJ, Haynes R, Hopewell JC, et al. Effects of extended-release niacin with laropiprant in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:203-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Leyes P, Martínez E, Larrousse M, et al. Effects of ezetimibe on cholesterol metabolism in HIV-infected patients with protease inhibitor-associated dyslipidemia: a single-arm intervention trial. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:497.

PubMed Abstract»

Lichtenstein KA, Armon C, Buchacz K, et al. Low CD4+ T cell count is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease events in the HIV outpatient study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:435-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Longenecker CT, Hileman CO, Funderburg NT, McComsey GA. Rosuvastatin preserves renal function and lowers cystatin C in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy: the SATURN-HIV trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1148-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Mallolas J, Podzamczer D, Milinkovic A, et al. Efficacy and safety of switching from boosted lopinavir to boosted atazanavir in patients with virological suppression receiving a LPV/r-containing HAART: the ATAZIP study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51:29-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Malvestutto CD, Aberg JA. Management of dyslipidemia in HIV-infected patients. Clin Lipidol. 2011;6:447-462.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller M, Stone NJ, Ballantyne C, et al. Triglycerides and cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123:2292-333.

PubMed Abstract»

Morrone D, Weintraub WS, Toth PP, et al. Lipid-altering efficacy of ezetimibe plus statin and statin monotherapy and identification of factors associated with treatment response: a pooled analysis of over 21,000 subjects from 27 clinical trials. Atherosclerosis. 2012;223:251-61.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24b. Drug interactions between non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Limitations to treatment safety and efficacy: adverse effects of antiretroviral agents. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Rader DJ, Haffner SM. Role of fibrates in the management of hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Cardiol. 1999;83:30F-35F.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenson RS, Hegele RA, Fazio S, Cannon CP. The Evolving Future of PCSK9 Inhibitors. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;72:314-329.

PubMed Abstract»

Saeedi R, Johns K, Frohlich J, Bennett MT, Bondy G. Lipid lowering efficacy and safety of Ezetimibe combined with rosuvastatin compared with titrating rosuvastatin monotherapy in HIV-positive patients. Lipids Health Dis. 2015;14:57.

PubMed Abstract»

Schoonjans K, Staels B, Auwerx J. Role of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) in mediating the effects of fibrates and fatty acids on gene expression. J Lipid Res. 1996;37:907-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Stradling C, Chen YF, Russell T, Connock M, Thomas GN, Taheri S. The effects of dietary intervention on HIV dyslipidaemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7:e38121.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Tsao CW, Aday AW, Almarzooq ZI, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2022 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2022;145:e153-e639.

PubMed Abstract»

Tungsiripat M, Kitch D, Glesby MJ, et al. A pilot study to determine the impact on dyslipidemia of adding tenofovir to stable background antiretroviral therapy: ACTG 5206. AIDS. 2010;24:1781-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Virani SS, Alonso A, Benjamin EJ, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2020 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141:e139-e596.

PubMed Abstract»

Wohl DA, Waters D, Simpson RJ Jr, et al. Ezetimibe alone reduces low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in HIV-infected patients receiving combination antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:1105-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Worm SW, Kamara DA, Reiss P, et al. Elevated triglycerides and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-positive persons. AIDS. 2011;25:1497-504.

PubMed Abstract»

Zanni MV, Abbara S, Lo J, et al. Increased coronary atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability by coronary computed tomography angiography in HIV-infected men. AIDS. 2013;27:1263-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Zanni MV, Toribio M, Robbins GK, et al. Effects of Antiretroviral Therapy on Immune Function and Arterial Inflammation in Treatment-Naive Patients With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. JAMA Cardiol. 2016;1:474-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Osteoporosis

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, Hoy J, Borderi M, et al. Recommendations for Evaluation and Management of Bone Disease in HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1242-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Cosman F, de Beur SJ, LeBoff MS, et al. Clinician's Guide to Prevention and Treatment of Osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int. 2014;25:2359-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Cotter AG, Sabin CA, Simelane S, et al. Relative contribution of HIV infection, demographics and body mass index to bone mineral density. AIDS. 2014;28:2051-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Erlandson KM, Jiang Y, Debanne SM, McComsey GA. Effects of randomized rosuvastatin compared with placebo on bone and body composition among HIV-infected adults. AIDS. 2015;29:175-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Gourlay ML, Fine JP, Preisser JS, et al. Bone-density testing interval and transition to osteoporosis in older women. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:225-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Kooij KW, Wit FW, Bisschop PH, et al. Low bone mineral density in patients with well-suppressed HIV infection: association with body weight, smoking, and prior advanced HIV disease. J Infect Dis. 2014;211:539-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Mascarau R, Bertrand F, Labrousse A, et al. HIV-1-Infected Human Macrophages, by Secreting RANK-L, Contribute to Enhanced Osteoclast Recruitment. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:3154.

PubMed Abstract»

McComsey GA, Kitch D, Daar ES, et al. Bone mineral density and fractures in antiretroviral-naive persons randomized to receive abacavir-lamivudine or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-emtricitabine along with efavirenz or atazanavir-ritonavir: Aids Clinical Trials Group A5224s, a substudy of ACTG A5202. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:1791-801.

PubMed Abstract»

McComsey GA, Tebas P, Shane E, et al. Bone disease in HIV infection: a practical review and recommendations for HIV care providers. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:937-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Migliorati CA, Siegel MA, Elting LS. Bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis: a long-term complication of bisphosphonate treatment. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7:508-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Mills A, Arribas JR, Andrade-Villanueva J, et al. Switching from tenofovir disoproxil fumarate to tenofovir alafenamide in antiretroviral regimens for virologically suppressed adults with HIV-1 infection: a randomised, active-controlled, multicentre, open-label, phase 3, non-inferiority study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:43-52.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Qaseem A, Forciea MA, McLean RM, Denberg TD. Treatment of Low Bone Density or Osteoporosis to Prevent Fractures in Men and Women: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update From the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2017;166:818-839.

PubMed Abstract»

Saita Y, Ishijima M, Kaneko K. Atypical femoral fractures and bisphosphonate use: current evidence and clinical implications. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2015;6:185-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Wohl D, Yin MT, et al. Tenofovir alafenamide versus tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, coformulated with elvitegravir, cobicistat, and emtricitabine, for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection: two randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trials. Lancet. 2015;385:2606-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Schwartz AV, Bauer DC, Cummings SR, et al. Efficacy of continued alendronate for fractures in women with and without prevalent vertebral fracture: the FLEX trial. J Bone Miner Res. 2010;25:976-82.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for osteoporosis: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2011;154:356-64.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Curry SJ, Krist AH, et al. Screening for Osteoporosis to Prevent Fractures: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2018;319:2521-2531.

PubMed Abstract»

Whitaker M, Guo J, Kehoe T, Benson G. Bisphosphonates for osteoporosis--where do we go from here? N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2048-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Womack JA, Goulet JL, Gibert C, et al. Increased risk of fragility fractures among HIV infected compared to uninfected male veterans. PLoS One. 2011;6:e17217.

PubMed Abstract»

Wright NC, Looker AC, Saag KG, et al. The recent prevalence of osteoporosis and low bone mass in the United States based on bone mineral density at the femoral neck or lumbar spine. J Bone Miner Res. 2014;29:2520-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Renal Disease

PubMed Abstract»

Bahr NC, Yarlagadda SG. Fanconi Syndrome and Tenofovir Alafenamide: A Case Report. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:814-815.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Blaha MJ, Chiuve SE, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2017 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;135:e146-e603.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2018 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2018;137:e67-e492.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen SD, Kopp JB, Kimmel PL. Kidney Diseases Associated with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:2363-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Cooper RD, Wiebe N, Smith N, Keiser P, Naicker S, Tonelli M. Systematic review and meta-analysis: renal safety of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:496-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Gagneux-Brunon A, Mariat C, Delanaye P. Cystatin C in HIV-infected patients: promising but not yet ready for prime time. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2012;27:1305-13.

PubMed Abstract»

German P, Liu HC, Szwarcberg J, et al. Effect of cobicistat on glomerular filtration rate in subjects with normal and impaired renal function. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:32-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta SK, Anderson AM, Ebrahimi R, et al. Fanconi syndrome accompanied by renal function decline with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: a prospective, case-control study of predictors and resolution in HIV-infected patients. PLoS One. 2014;9:e92717.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamzah L, Williams D, Bailey AC, et al. Early safety of tenofovir alafenamide in patients with a history of tubulopathy on tenofovir disoproxil fumarate: a randomized controlled clinical trial. HIV Med. 2020;21:198-203.

PubMed Abstract»

Inker LA, Astor BC, Fox CH, et al. KDOQI US commentary on the 2012 KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63:713-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Jardine MJ, Ninomiya T, Perkovic V, et al. Aspirin is beneficial in hypertensive patients with chronic kidney disease: a post-hoc subgroup analysis of a randomized controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:956-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Jones CY, Jones CA, Wilson IB, et al. Cystatin C and creatinine in an HIV cohort: the nutrition for healthy living study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2008;51:914-24.

PubMed Abstract»

KDIGO Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013; 3:1-150.

International Society of Nephrology»

Levey AS, Coresh J, Balk E, et al. National Kidney Foundation practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:137-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Lindeman TA, Duggan JM, Sahloff EG. Evaluation of Serum Creatinine Changes With Integrase Inhibitor Use in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Infected Adults. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3:ofw053.

PubMed Abstract»

Mallipattu SK, Salem F, Wyatt CM. The changing epidemiology of HIV-related chronic kidney disease in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Kidney Int. 2014;86:259-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Mocroft A, Kirk O, Reiss P, et al. Estimated glomerular filtration rate, chronic kidney disease and antiretroviral drug use in HIV-positive patients. AIDS. 2010;24:1667-78.

PubMed Abstract»

National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002;39:S1-266.

PubMed Abstract»

Novick TK, Choi MJ, Rosenberg AZ, McMahon BA, Fine D, Atta MG. Tenofovir alafenamide nephrotoxicity in an HIV-positive patient: A case report. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96:e8046.

PubMed Abstract»

Odden MC, Scherzer R, Bacchetti P, et al. Cystatin C level as a marker of kidney function in human immunodeficiency virus infection: the FRAM study. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:2213-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Scherzer R, Estrella M, Li Y, et al. Association of tenofovir exposure with kidney disease risk in HIV infection. AIDS. 2012;26:867-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Serota DP, Franch HA, Cartwright EJ. Acute Kidney Injury in a Patient on Tenofovir Alafenamide Fumarate After Initiation of Treatment for Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5:ofy189.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Tsao CW, Aday AW, Almarzooq ZI, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2022 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2022;145:e153-e639.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Davidson KW, Barry MJ, et al. Aspirin Use to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2022;327:1577-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Virani SS, Alonso A, Benjamin EJ, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2020 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141:e139-e596.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiner DE, Tighiouart H, Amin MG, et al. Chronic kidney disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a pooled analysis of community-based studies. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004;15:1307-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Testosterone Deficiency

Bhasin S, Brito JP, Cunningham GR, et al. Testosterone Therapy in Men With Hypogonadism: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103:1715-1744.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhasin S, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, et al. Testosterone therapy in men with androgen deficiency syndromes: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:2536-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhatia R, Murphy AB, Raper JL, et al. Testosterone replacement therapy among HIV-infected men in the CFAR Network of Integrated Clinical Systems. AIDS. 2015;29:77-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Dobs AS, Dempsey MA, Ladenson PW, Polk BF. Endocrine disorders in men infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Med. 1988;84:611-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Gomes AC, Aragüés JM, Guerra S, Fernandes J, Mascarenhas MR. Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in human immunodeficiency virus-infected men: uncommonly low testosterone levels. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Rep. 2017;2017:17-0104.

PubMed Abstract»

Gomes AR, Souteiro P, Silva CG, et al. Prevalence of testosterone deficiency in HIV-infected men under antiretroviral therapy. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:628.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon S, Corcoran C, Askari H, et al. Effects of androgen administration in men with the AIDS wasting syndrome. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:18-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Lachâtre M, Pasquet A, Ajana F, et al. HIV and hypogonadism: a new challenge for young-aged and middle-aged men on effective antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2017;31:451-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Layton JB, Li D, Meier CR, et al. Testosterone lab testing and initiation in the United Kingdom and the United States, 2000 to 2011. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99:835-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Monroe AK, Dobs AS, Palella FJ, Kingsley LA, Witt MD, Brown TT. Morning free and total testosterone in HIV-infected men: implications for the assessment of hypogonadism. AIDS Res Ther. 2014;11:6.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegel RL, Miller KD, Goding Sauer A, et al. Colorectal cancer statistics, 2020. CA Cancer J Clin. 2020;70:145-64.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Vigen R, O'Donnell CI, Barón AE, et al. Association of testosterone therapy with mortality, myocardial infarction, and stroke in men with low testosterone levels. JAMA. 2013;310:1829-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 5. Primary Care Management

Tobacco Use and Smoking Cessation

PubMed Abstract»

Barua RS, Rigotti NA, Benowitz NL, et al. 2018 ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway on Tobacco Cessation Treatment: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;72:3332-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Butt YM, Smith ML, Tazelaar HD, et al. Pathology of Vaping-Associated Lung Injury. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:1780-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahill K, Stevens S, Perera R, Lancaster T. Pharmacological interventions for smoking cessation: an overview and network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013:CD009329.

PubMed Abstract»

Clinical Practice Guideline Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence 2008 Update Panel, Liaisons, and Staff. A clinical practice guideline for treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. A U.S. Public Health Service report. Am J Prev Med. 2008;35:158-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Cornelius ME, Wang TW, Jamal A, Loretan CG, Neff LJ. Tobacco Product Use Among Adults - United States, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:1736-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Ebbert JO, Hatsukami DK, Croghan IT, et al. Combination varenicline and bupropion SR for tobacco-dependence treatment in cigarette smokers: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2014;311:155-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Elf JL, Variava E, Chon S, et al. Prevalence and Correlates of Smoking Among People Living With HIV in South Africa. Nicotine Tob Res. 2018;20:1124-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Feldman JG, Minkoff H, Schneider MF, et al. Association of cigarette smoking with HIV prognosis among women in the HAART era: a report from the women's interagency HIV study. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:1060-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Frazier EL, Sutton MY, Brooks JT, Shouse RL, Weiser J. Trends in cigarette smoking among adults with HIV compared with the general adult population, United States - 2009-2014. Prev Med. 2018;111:231-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Hajek P, Smith KM, Dhanji AR, McRobbie H. Is a combination of varenicline and nicotine patch more effective in helping smokers quit than varenicline alone? A randomised controlled trial. BMC Med. 2013;11:140.

PubMed Abstract»

Helleberg M, Afzal S, Kronborg G, et al. Mortality attributable to smoking among HIV-1-infected individuals: a nationwide, population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;56:727-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Homa DM, Neff LJ, King BA, et al. Vital signs: disparities in nonsmokers' exposure to secondhand smoke--United States, 1999-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:103-8.

MMWR»

Jamal A, Agaku IT, O'Connor E, King BA, Kenemer JB, Neff L. Current cigarette smoking among adults--United States, 2005-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1108-12.

MMWR»

Koegelenberg CF, Noor F, Bateman ED, et al. Efficacy of varenicline combined with nicotine replacement therapy vs varenicline alone for smoking cessation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312:155-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Layden JE, Ghinai I, Pray I, et al. Pulmonary Illness Related to E-Cigarette Use in Illinois and Wisconsin - Final Report. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:903-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Lichtenstein KA, Armon C, Buchacz K, et al. Low CD4+ T cell count is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease events in the HIV outpatient study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:435-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Lifson AR, Neuhaus J, Arribas JR, van den Berg-Wolf M, Labriola AM, Read TR. Smoking-related health risks among persons with HIV in the Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy clinical trial. Am J Public Health. 2010;100:1896-903.

PubMed Abstract»

Maddock SD, Cirulis MM, Callahan SJ, et al. Pulmonary Lipid-Laden Macrophages and Vaping. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:1488-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mdege ND, Shah S, Ayo-Yusuf OA, Hakim J, Siddiqi K. Tobacco use among people living with HIV: analysis of data from Demographic and Health Surveys from 28 low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5:e578-e592.

PubMed Abstract»

Mdodo R, Frazier EL, Dube SR, et al. Cigarette smoking prevalence among adults with HIV compared with the general adult population in the United States: cross-sectional surveys. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162:335-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Mercié P, Arsandaux J, Katlama C, et al. Efficacy and safety of varenicline for smoking cessation in people living with HIV in France (ANRS 144 Inter-ACTIV): a randomised controlled phase 3 clinical trial. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e126-e135.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Siu AL. Behavioral and Pharmacotherapy Interventions for Tobacco Smoking Cessation in Adults, Including Pregnant Women: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163:622-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterling LH, Windle SB, Filion KB, Touma L, Eisenberg MJ. Varenicline and Adverse Cardiovascular Events: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5(2).

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Tsai J, Homa DM, Gentzke AS, et al. Exposure to Secondhand Smoke Among Nonsmokers - United States, 1988-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:1342-1346.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Public Health Service. A clinical practice guideline for treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. A U.S. Public Health Service report. Am J Prev Med. 2008;35:158-76.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force; Krist AH, Davidson KW, et al. Interventions for Tobacco Smoking Cessation in Adults, Including Pregnant Persons: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2021;325:265-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Wang TW, Asman K, Gentzke AS, et al. Tobacco Product Use Among Adults - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:1225-1232.

PubMed Abstract»

Weinberger AH, Smith PH, Funk AP, Rabin S, Shuter J. Sex Differences in Tobacco Use Among Persons Living With HIV/AIDS: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;74:439-453.

PubMed Abstract»

Armah KA, Chang CC, Baker JV, et al. Prehypertension, hypertension, and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in HIV-infected and -uninfected veterans. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;58:121-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Benjamin EJ, Muntner P, Alonso A, et al. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2019 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2019;139:e56-e528.

PubMed Abstract»

Coelho AR, Moreira FA, Santos AC, et al. Diabetes mellitus in HIV-infected patients: fasting glucose, A1c, or oral glucose tolerance test - which method to choose for the diagnosis? BMC Infect Dis. 2018;18:309.

PubMed Abstract»

Coghill AE, Shiels MS, Suneja G, Engels EA. Elevated Cancer-Specific Mortality Among HIV-Infected Patients in the United States. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33:2376-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Diop ME, Bastard JP, Meunier N, et al. Inappropriately low glycated hemoglobin values and hemolysis in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2006;22:1242-7.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 11. Chronic Kidney Disease and Risk Management: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S191-S202.

PubMed Abstract»

Galli L, Spagnuolo V, Poli A, et al. Use of statins and risk of AIDS-defining and non-AIDS-defining malignancies among HIV-1 infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2014;28:2407-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Glesby MJ, Hoover DR, Shi Q, et al. Glycated haemoglobin in diabetic women with and without HIV infection: data from the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Antivir Ther. 2010;15:571-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Hernández-Ramírez RU, Shiels MS, Dubrow R, Engels EA. Cancer risk in HIV-infected people in the USA from 1996 to 2012: a population-based, registry-linkage study. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e495-e504.

PubMed Abstract»

Heron JE, Bloch M, Vanguru V, Saunders J, Gracey DM. Renal proximal tubulopathy in an HIV-infected patient treated with tenofovir alafenamide and gentamicin: a case report. BMC Nephrol. 2020;21:339.

PubMed Abstract»

Hillman RJ, Berry-Lawhorn JM, Ong JJ, et al. International Anal Neoplasia Society Guidelines for the Practice of Digital Anal Rectal Examination. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2019;23:138-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Krishnan N, Gittelsohn J, Ross A, et al. Qualitative Exploration of a Smoking Cessation Trial for People Living With HIV in South Africa. Nicotine Tob Res. 2018;20:1117-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Maki KC, Dicklin MR, Baum SJ. Statins and diabetes. Cardiol Clin. 2015;33:233-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Marcus JL, Chao C, Leyden WA, et al. Survival among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals with common non-AIDS-defining cancers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2015;24:1167-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Marx RE, Sawatari Y, Fortin M, Broumand V. Bisphosphonate-induced exposed bone (osteonecrosis/osteopetrosis) of the jaws: risk factors, recognition, prevention, and treatment. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2005;63:1567-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Mills A, Crofoot G Jr, McDonald C, et al. Tenofovir Alafenamide Versus Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate in the First Protease Inhibitor-Based Single-Tablet Regimen for Initial HIV-1 Therapy: A Randomized Phase 2 Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;69:439-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Morgan DR, Malik PR, Romeo DP, Rex DK. Initial US evaluation of second-generation capsule colonoscopy for detecting colon polyps. BMJ Open Gastroenterol. 2016;3:e000089.

PubMed Abstract»

Nudy M, Cooper J, Ghahramani M, Ruzieh M, Mandrola J, Foy AJ. Aspirin for Primary Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Prevention as Baseline Risk Increases: A Meta-Regression Analysis. Am J Med. 2020;133:1056-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Perkins RB, Guido RS, Castle PE, et al. 2019 ASCCP Risk-Based Management Consensus Guidelines for Abnormal Cervical Cancer Screening Tests and Cancer Precursors. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2020;24:102-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Robbins HA, Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Engels EA. Epidemiologic contributions to recent cancer trends among HIV-infected people in the United States. AIDS. 2014;28:881-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Robertson DJ, Lee JK, Boland CR, et al. Recommendations on Fecal Immunochemical Testing to Screen for Colorectal Neoplasia: A Consensus Statement by the US Multi-Society Task Force on Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology. 2017;152:1217-1237.e3.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Zolopa A, Brar I, et al. Tenofovir alafenamide vs. tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in single tablet regimens for initial HIV-1 therapy: a randomized phase 2 study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:52-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Gail MH, et al. Cancer burden in the HIV-infected population in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103:753-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegel RL, Miller KD, Goding Sauer A, et al. Colorectal cancer statistics, 2020. CA Cancer J Clin. 2020;70:145-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Sisson EM, Pamulapati L, Bucheit JD, Kelly MS, Dixon DL. Evolving Role of Non-Statin Therapy for the Management of Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Risk Reduction: Past, Present, and Future. Pharmacotherapy. 2018;38:164-171.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Tien PC, Schneider MF, Cox C, et al. Association of HIV infection with incident diabetes mellitus: impact of using hemoglobin A1C as a criterion for diabetes. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:334-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Wright JT Jr, Williamson JD, Whelton PK, et al. A Randomized Trial of Intensive versus Standard Blood-Pressure Control. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2103-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Wunder DM, Bersinger NA, Fux CA, et al. Hypogonadism in HIV-1-infected men is common and does not resolve during antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:261-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Background

Antelman G, Kaaya S, Wei R, et al. Depressive symptoms increase risk of HIV disease progression and mortality among women in Tanzania. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:470-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Orlando M, Burnam MA, Beckman R, et al. Re-estimating the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in a nationally representative sample of persons receiving care for HIV: results from the HIV Cost and Services Utilization Study. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2002;11:75-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Estimates of Mental Health Conditions in Persons with HIV

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Carvalhal A, Baril JG, Crouzat F, et al. Recognizing cognitive and psychiatric changes in the post-highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2012;23:209-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2020 Cycle (June 2020–May 2021). HIV Surveillance Special Report 29. Published July 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Do AN, Rosenberg ES, Sullivan PS, et al. Excess burden of depression among HIV-infected persons receiving medical care in the united states: data from the medical monitoring project and the behavioral risk factor surveillance system. PLoS One. 2014;9:e92842.

PubMed Abstract»

European AIDS Clinical Society. Guidelines. Version 8.0. October, 2015.

EACS»

Golin CE, Haley DF, Wang J, et al. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Mental Health over Time among Low-Income Women at Increased Risk of HIV in the U.S. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2016;27:891-910.

PubMed Abstract»

Lopes M, Olfson M, Rabkin J, et al. Gender, HIV status, and psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012;73:384-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Machtinger EL, Wilson TC, Haberer JE, Weiss DS. Psychological trauma and PTSD in HIV-positive women: a meta-analysis. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:2091-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Meade CS, Bevilacqua LA, Key MD. Bipolar disorder is associated with HIV transmission risk behavior among patients in treatment for HIV. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:2267-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Mudra Rakshasa-Loots A, Bakewell N, Sharp DJ, et al. Biomarkers of central and peripheral inflammation mediate the association between HIV and depressive symptoms. Transl Psychiatry. 2023;13:190.

PubMed Abstract»

Mudra Rakshasa-Loots A, Whalley HC, Vera JH, Cox SR. Neuroinflammation in HIV-associated depression: evidence and future perspectives. Mol Psychiatry. 2022;27:3619-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Neigh GN, Rhodes ST, Valdez A, Jovanovic T. PTSD co-morbid with HIV: Separate but equal, or two parts of a whole? Neurobiol Dis. 2016;92:116-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Wei SC, Messina L, Hood J, et al. Methods to include persons living with HIV not receiving HIV care in the Medical Monitoring Project. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0219996.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Mental Health Conditions and Risk of HIV Acquisition and Transmission

Badiee J, Riggs PK, Rooney AS, et al. Approaches to identifying appropriate medication adherence assessments for HIV infected individuals with comorbid bipolar disorder. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012;26:388-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Beyer JL, Taylor L, Gersing KR, Krishnan KR. Prevalence of HIV infection in a general psychiatric outpatient population. Psychosomatics. 2007;48:31-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Blank MB, Himelhoch SS, Balaji AB, et al. A multisite study of the prevalence of HIV with rapid testing in mental health settings. Am J Public Health. 2014;104:2377-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Buckingham E, Schrage E, Cournos F. Why the Treatment of Mental Disorders Is an Important Component of HIV Prevention among People Who Inject Drugs. Adv Prev Med. 2013;2013:690386.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Cournos F, Empfield M, Horwath E, et al. HIV seroprevalence among patients admitted to two psychiatric hospitals. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148:1225-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Cournos F, Horwath E, Guido JR, McKinnon K, Hopkins N. HIV-1 infection at two public psychiatric hospitals in New York City. AIDS Care. 1994;6:443-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Crepaz N, Marks G. Are negative affective states associated with HIV sexual risk behaviors? A meta-analytic review. Health Psychol. 2001;20:291-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Falck RS, Wang J, Carlson RG, Siegal HA. Factors influencing condom use among heterosexual users of injection drugs and crack cocaine. Sex Transm Dis. 1997;24:204-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Gonzalez JS, Batchelder AW, Psaros C, Safren SA. Depression and HIV/AIDS treatment nonadherence: a review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:181-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Grossman CI, Gordon CM. Mental health considerations in secondary HIV prevention. AIDS Behav. 2010;14:263-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Hughes E, Bassi S, Gilbody S, Bland M, Martin F. Prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C in people with severe mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3:40-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Meade CS, Bevilacqua LA, Key MD. Bipolar disorder is associated with HIV transmission risk behavior among patients in treatment for HIV. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:2267-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Meade CS, Graff FS, Griffin ML, Weiss RD. HIV risk behavior among patients with co-occurring bipolar and substance use disorders: associations with mania and drug abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;92:296-300.

PubMed Abstract»

Meade CS, Sikkema KJ. HIV risk behavior among adults with severe mental illness: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2005;25:433-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Mimiaga MJ, Reisner SL, Grasso C, et al. Substance use among HIV-infected patients engaged in primary care in the United States: findings from the Centers for AIDS Research Network of Integrated Clinical Systems cohort. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:1457-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Mitzel LD, Vanable PA, Brown JL, Bostwick RA, Sweeney SM, Carey MP. Depressive Symptoms Mediate the Effect of HIV-Related Stigmatization on Medication Adherence Among HIV-Infected Men Who Have Sex with Men. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:1454-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Moore DJ, Posada C, Parikh M, et al. HIV-infected individuals with co-occurring bipolar disorder evidence poor antiretroviral and psychiatric medication adherence. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:2257-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Mustanski BS, Newcomb ME, Du Bois SN, Garcia SC, Grov C. HIV in young men who have sex with men: a review of epidemiology, risk and protective factors, and interventions. J Sex Res. 2011;48:218-53.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Cleirigh C, Newcomb ME, Mayer KH, Skeer M, Traeger L, Safren SA. Moderate levels of depression predict sexual transmission risk in HIV-infected MSM: a longitudinal analysis of data from six sites involved in a "prevention for positives" study. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:1764-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg SD, Goodman LA, Osher FC, et al. Prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C in people with severe mental illness. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:31-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Sikkema KJ, Watt MH, Drabkin AS, Meade CS, Hansen NB, Pence BW. Mental health treatment to reduce HIV transmission risk behavior: a positive prevention model. AIDS Behav. 2010;14:252-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Springer SA, Dushaj A, Azar MM. The impact of DSM-IV mental disorders on adherence to combination antiretroviral therapy among adult persons living with HIV/AIDS: a systematic review. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:2119-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Walkup J, Blank MB, Gonzalez JS, et al. The impact of mental health and substance abuse factors on HIV prevention and treatment. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;47 Suppl 1:S15-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Willie TC, Overstreet NM, Sullivan TP, Sikkema KJ, Hansen NB. Barriers to HIV Medication Adherence: Examining Distinct Anxiety and Depression Symptoms among Women Living with HIV Who Experienced Childhood Sexual Abuse. Behav Med. 2016;42:120-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Wright N, Akhtar A, Tosh GE, Clifton AV. HIV prevention advice for people with serious mental illness. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;12:CD009639.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Impact of Mental Health Conditions on HIV Outcomes

Antelman G, Kaaya S, Wei R, et al. Depressive symptoms increase risk of HIV disease progression and mortality among women in Tanzania. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:470-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Brownley JR, Fallot RD, Wolfson Berley R, Himelhoch SS. Trauma history in African-American women living with HIV: effects on psychiatric symptom severity and religious coping. AIDS Care. 2015;27:964-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Charlson FJ, Baxter AJ, Dua T, Degenhardt L, Whiteford HA, Vos T. Excess mortality from mental, neurological and substance use disorders in the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2015;24:121-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Cook JA, Cohen MH, Burke J, et al. Effects of depressive symptoms and mental health quality of life on use of highly active antiretroviral therapy among HIV-seropositive women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:401-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cruess DG, Kalichman SC, Amaral C, Swetzes C, Cherry C, Kalichman MO. Benefits of adherence to psychotropic medications on depressive symptoms and antiretroviral medication adherence among men and women living with HIV/AIDS. Ann Behav Med. 2012;43:189-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Gonzalez JS, Batchelder AW, Psaros C, Safren SA. Depression and HIV/AIDS treatment nonadherence: a review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:181-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Goodkin K, Evering TH, Anderson AM, et al. The comorbidity of depression and neurocognitive disorder in persons with HIV infection: call for investigation and treatment. Front Cell Neurosci. 2023;17:1130938.

PubMed Abstract»

Himelhoch S, Brown CH, Walkup J, et al. HIV patients with psychiatric disorders are less likely to discontinue HAART. AIDS. 2009;23:1735-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Horberg MA, Silverberg MJ, Hurley LB, et al. Effects of depression and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor use on adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy and on clinical outcomes in HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;47:384-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Moore DJ, Posada C, Parikh M, et al. HIV-infected individuals with co-occurring bipolar disorder evidence poor antiretroviral and psychiatric medication adherence. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:2257-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Nel A, Kagee A. Common mental health problems and antiretroviral therapy adherence. AIDS Care. 2011;23:1360-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Saag LA, Tamhane AR, Batey DS, Mugavero MJ, Eaton EF. Mental health service utilization is associated with retention in care among persons living with HIV at a university-affiliated HIV clinic. AIDS Res Ther. 2018;15:1.

PubMed Abstract»

Sundermann EE, Tang B, Kim M, Paolillo EW, Heaton RK, Moore RC. Neuropsychiatric predictors of cognitive functioning over a one-year follow-up period in HIV. J Affect Disord. 2023;336:92-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Treisman G, Angelino A. Interrelation between psychiatric disorders and the prevention and treatment of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S313-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Vranceanu AM, Safren SA, Lu M, et al. The relationship of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression to antiretroviral medication adherence in persons with HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2008;22:313-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Yiaslas TA, Kamen C, Arteaga A, et al. The relationship between sexual trauma, peritraumatic dissociation, posttraumatic stress disorder, and HIV-related health in HIV-positive men. J Trauma Dissociation. 2014;15:420-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Benefit of Mental Health Care on HIV Outcomes

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Neurocognitive Disorders in Persons Living with HIV

Ahern E, Semkovska M. Cognitive functioning in the first-episode of major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology. 2017;31:52-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Antinori A, Arendt G, Becker JT, et al. Updated research nosology for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neurology. 2007;69:1789-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Boly L, Cafaro V, Dyner T. Depressive symptoms predict increased incidence of neuropsychiatric side effects in patients treated with efavirenz. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;42:514-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Carvalhal A, Baril JG, Crouzat F, et al. Recognizing cognitive and psychiatric changes in the post-highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2012;23:209-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Eggers C, Arendt G, Hahn K, et al. HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorder: epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. J Neurol. 2017;264:1715-27.

PubMed Abstract»

European AIDS Clinical Society. Guidelines. Version 8.0. October, 2015.

EACS»

Foster R, Olajide D, Everall IP. Antiretroviral therapy-induced psychosis: case report and brief review of the literature. HIV Med. 2003;4:139-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Foster R, Taylor C, Everall IP. More on abacavir-induced neuropsychiatric reactions. AIDS. 2004;18:2449.

PubMed Abstract»

Gutiérrez F, Navarro A, Padilla S, et al. Prediction of neuropsychiatric adverse events associated with long-term efavirenz therapy, using plasma drug level monitoring. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1648-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Heaton RK, Clifford DB, Franklin DR Jr, et al. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders persist in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: CHARTER Study. Neurology. 2010;75:2087-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Letendre SL, Chen H, McKhann A, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy Intensification for Neurocognitive Impairment in HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 May 15. [Online ahead of print]

PubMed Abstract»

Nightingale S, Ances B, Cinque P, et al. Cognitive impairment in people living with HIV: consensus recommendations for a new approach. Nat Rev Neurol. 2023 Jun 13. [online ahead of print]

PubMed Abstract»

Prince M, Bryce R, Albanese E, Wimo A, Ribeiro W, Ferri CP. The global prevalence of dementia: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9:63-75.e2.

PubMed Abstract»

Roca M, Vives M, López-Navarro E, García-Campayo J, Gili M. Cognitive impairments and depression: a critical review. Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 2015;43:187-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Sacktor N, Skolasky RL, Seaberg E, et al. Prevalence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Neurology. 2016;86:334-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Saylor D, Dickens AM, Sacktor N, et al. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder - pathogenesis and prospects for treatment. Nat Rev Neurol. 2016;12:309.

PubMed Abstract»

The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: Recommended Treatment Strategies for Clinicians Managing Older Patients with HIV. American Academy of HIV Medicine. Last Updated May 2017

AAHIVM»

Vance DE, Wadley VG, Crowe MG, Raper JL, Ball KK. Cognitive and Everyday Functioning in Older and Younger Adults with and without HIV. Clin Gerontol. 2011;34:413-426.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Overview of Screening Tools for Common Mental Health Conditions

PubMed Abstract»

Fuchs CH, Haradhvala N, Hubley S, et al. Physician actions following a positive PHQ-2: implications for the implementation of depression screening in family medicine practice. Fam Syst Health. 2015;33:18-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Katon WJ, Lin EH, Von Korff M, et al. Collaborative care for patients with depression and chronic illnesses. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2611-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB. Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: the PHQ primary care study. Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders. Patient Health Questionnaire. JAMA. 1999;282:1737-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Kroenke K, et al. Utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care. The PRIME-MD 1000 study. JAMA. 1994;272:1749-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Yonkers KA, Smith MV, Lin H, Howell HB, Shao L, Rosenheck RA. Depression screening of perinatal women: an evaluation of the healthy start depression initiative. Psychiatr Serv. 2009;60:322-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Depression Screening Tools

HIVMA»

Bjelland I, Dahl AA, Haug TT, Neckelmann D. The validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. An updated literature review. J Psychosom Res. 2002;52:69-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Chang BP, Tan TM. Suicide screening tools and their association with near-term adverse events in the ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2015;33:1680-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Golden J, Conroy RM, O'Dwyer AM. Reliability and validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory (Full and FastScreen scales) in detecting depression in persons with hepatitis C. J Affect Disord. 2007;100:265-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Honarmand K, Feinstein A. Validation of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale for use with multiple sclerosis patients. Mult Scler. 2009;15:1518-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Huang FY, Chung H, Kroenke K, Delucchi KL, Spitzer RL. Using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 to measure depression among racially and ethnically diverse primary care patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2006;21:547-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: validity of a two-item depression screener. Med Care. 2003;41:1284-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16:606-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Levis B, Benedetti A, Ioannidis JPA, et al. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 scores do not accurately estimate depression prevalence: individual participant data meta-analysis. J Clin Epidemiol. 2020;122:115-128.e1.

PubMed Abstract»

Levis B, Sun Y, He C, et al. Accuracy of the PHQ-2 Alone and in Combination With the PHQ-9 for Screening to Detect Major Depression: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA. 2020;323:2290-2300.

PubMed Abstract»

Maurer DM. Screening for depression. Am Fam Physician. 2012;85:139-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Mitchell AJ, Yadegarfar M, Gill J, Stubbs B. Case finding and screening clinical utility of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9 and PHQ-2) for depression in primary care: a diagnostic meta-analysis of 40 studies. BJPsych Open. 2016;2:127-138.

PubMed Abstract»

Moriarty AS, Gilbody S, McMillan D, Manea L. Screening and case finding for major depressive disorder using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9): a meta-analysis. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2015;37:567-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Preljevic VT, Østhus TB, Sandvik L, et al. Screening for anxiety and depression in dialysis patients: comparison of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory. J Psychosom Res. 2012;73:139-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Tamburrino MB, Lynch DJ, Nagel RW, Smith MK. Primary care evaluation of mental disorders (PRIME-MD) screening for minor depressive disorder in primary care. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;11:339-43.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Barry MJ, Nicholson WK, et al. Screening for Depression and Suicide Risk in Adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2023;329:2057-67.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Zwaan GL, van Dijk SE, Adriaanse MC, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 for assessment of depression in type II diabetes mellitus and/or coronary heart disease in primary care. J Affect Disord. 2016;190:68-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Vodermaier A, Millman RD. Accuracy of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale as a screening tool in cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Support Care Cancer. 2011;19:1899-908.

PubMed Abstract»

Whelan-Goodinson R, Ponsford J, Schönberger M. Validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale to assess depression and anxiety following traumatic brain injury as compared with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. J Affect Disord. 2009;114:94-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Whooley MA, Avins AL, Miranda J, Browner WS. Case-finding instruments for depression. Two questions are as good as many. J Gen Intern Med. 1997;12:439-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Anxiety Disorder Screening Tools

Herr NR, Williams JW Jr, Benjamin S, McDuffie J. Does this patient have generalized anxiety or panic disorder?: The Rational Clinical Examination systematic review. JAMA. 2014;312:78-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Monahan PO, Löwe B. Anxiety disorders in primary care: prevalence, impairment, comorbidity, and detection. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146:317-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Löwe B, Decker O, Müller S, et al. Validation and standardization of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener (GAD-7) in the general population. Med Care. 2008;46:266-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Plummer F, Manea L, Trepel D, McMillan D. Screening for anxiety disorders with the GAD-7 and GAD-2: a systematic review and diagnostic metaanalysis. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2016;39:24-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, Löwe B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1092-7.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Barry MJ, Nicholson WK, et al. Screening for Anxiety Disorders in Adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2023 Jun 20. Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Wittkampf KA, Baas KD, van Weert HC, Lucassen P, Schene AH. The psychometric properties of the panic disorder module of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-PD) in high-risk groups in primary care. J Affect Disord. 2011;130:260-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Screening Tools

Freedy JR, Steenkamp MM, Magruder KM, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder screening test performance in civilian primary care. Fam Pract. 2010;27:615-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Machtinger EL, Wilson TC, Haberer JE, Weiss DS. Psychological trauma and PTSD in HIV-positive women: a meta-analysis. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:2091-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Neigh GN, Rhodes ST, Valdez A, Jovanovic T. PTSD co-morbid with HIV: Separate but equal, or two parts of a whole? Neurobiol Dis. 2016;92:116-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Ouimette P, Wade M, Prins A, Schohn M. Identifying PTSD in primary care: comparison of the Primary Care-PTSD screen (PC-PTSD) and the General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ). J Anxiety Disord. 2008;22:337-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Prins A, Bovin MJ, Smolenski DJ, et al. The Primary Care PTSD Screen for DSM-5 (PC-PTSD-5): Development and Evaluation Within a Veteran Primary Care Sample. J Gen Intern Med. 2016;31:1206-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Spoont MR, Williams JW Jr, Kehle-Forbes S, Nieuwsma JA, Mann-Wrobel MC, Gross R. Does This Patient Have Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?: Rational Clinical Examination Systematic Review. JAMA. 2015;314:501-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Bipolar Disorder Screening Tool

Carvalho AF, Takwoingi Y, Sales PM, et al. Screening for bipolar spectrum disorders: A comprehensive meta-analysis of accuracy studies. J Affect Disord. 2015;172:337-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Das AK, Olfson M, Gameroff MJ, et al. Screening for bipolar disorder in a primary care practice. JAMA. 2005;293:956-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Hirschfeld RM, Williams JB, Spitzer RL, et al. Development and validation of a screening instrument for bipolar spectrum disorder: the Mood Disorder Questionnaire. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:1873-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Merikangas KR, Akiskal HS, Angst J, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of bipolar spectrum disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64:543-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Price AL, Marzani-Nissen GR. Bipolar disorders: a review. Am Fam Physician. 2012;85:483-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Zimmerman M, Galione JN. Screening for bipolar disorder with the Mood Disorders Questionnaire: a review. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2011;19:219-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Neurocognitive Screening Tools

Borson S, Scanlan J, Brush M, Vitaliano P, Dokmak A. The mini-cog: a cognitive 'vital signs' measure for dementia screening in multi-lingual elderly. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2000;15:1021-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Brodaty H, Pond D, Kemp NM, et al. The GPCOG: a new screening test for dementia designed for general practice. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50:530-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Buschke H, Kuslansky G, Katz M, et al. Screening for dementia with the memory impairment screen. Neurology. 1999;52:231-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Davis HF, Skolasky RL Jr, Selnes OA, Burgess DM, McArthur JC. Assessing HIV-associated dementia: modified HIV dementia scale versus the Grooved Pegboard. AIDS Read. 2002;12:29-31, 38.

PubMed Abstract»

Ebell MH. Brief screening instruments for dementia in primary care. Am Fam Physician. 2009;79:497-8, 500.

PubMed Abstract»

European AIDS Clinical Society. Guidelines. Version 8.0. October, 2015.

EACS»

Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. "Mini-mental state". A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975;12:189-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Haddow LJ, Floyd S, Copas A, Gilson RJ. A systematic review of the screening accuracy of the HIV Dementia Scale and International HIV Dementia Scale. PLoS One. 2013;8:e61826.

PubMed Abstract»

Holsinger T, Plassman BL, Stechuchak KM, Burke JR, Coffman CJ, Williams JW Jr. Screening for cognitive impairment: comparing the performance of four instruments in primary care. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60:1027-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Janssen MA, Bosch M, Koopmans PP, Kessels RP. Validity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and the HIV Dementia Scale in the assessment of cognitive impairment in HIV-1 infected patients. J Neurovirol. 2015;21:383-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Lin JS, O'Connor E, Rossom RC, Perdue LA, Eckstrom E. Screening for cognitive impairment in older adults: A systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159:601-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Michels TC, Tiu AY, Graver CJ. Neuropsychological evaluation in primary care. Am Fam Physician. 2010;82:495-502.

PubMed Abstract»

Mind Exchange Working Group. Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder: a consensus report of the mind exchange program. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1004-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Nakazato A, Tominaga D, Tasato D, et al. Are MMSE and HDS-R neuropsychological tests adequate for screening HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders? J Infect Chemother. 2014;20:217-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53:695-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Petersen RC, Stevens JC, Ganguli M, Tangalos EG, Cummings JL, DeKosky ST. Practice parameter: early detection of dementia: mild cognitive impairment (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2001;56:1133-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Power C, Selnes OA, Grim JA, McArthur JC. HIV Dementia Scale: a rapid screening test. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;8:273-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Sacktor NC, Wong M, Nakasujja N, et al. The International HIV Dementia Scale: a new rapid screening test for HIV dementia. AIDS. 2005;19:1367-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Skinner S, Adewale AJ, DeBlock L, Gill MJ, Power C. Neurocognitive screening tools in HIV/AIDS: comparative performance among patients exposed to antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2009;10:246-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Tombaugh TN, McIntyre NJ. The mini-mental state examination: a comprehensive review. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1992;40:922-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Valcour V, Paul R, Chiao S, Wendelken LA, Miller B. Screening for cognitive impairment in human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:836-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Zipursky AR, Gogolishvili D, Rueda S, et al. Evaluation of brief screening tools for neurocognitive impairment in HIV/AIDS: a systematic review of the literature. AIDS. 2013;27:2385-401.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 6. Screening for Mental Health Conditions

Integrating Mental Health Screening into HIV Care

Archer J, Bower P, Gilbody S, et al. Collaborative care for depression and anxiety problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;10:CD006525.

PubMed Abstract»

Pence BW, Gaynes BN, Adams JL, et al. The effect of antidepressant treatment on HIV and depression outcomes: results from a randomized trial. AIDS. 2015;29:1975-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Pence BW, O'Donnell JK, Gaynes BN. Falling through the cracks: the gaps between depression prevalence, diagnosis, treatment, and response in HIV care. AIDS. 2012;26:656-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Torian LV, Wiewel EW, Liu KL, Sackoff JE, Frieden TR. Risk factors for delayed initiation of medical care after diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1181-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Willenbring ML. Integrating care for patients with infectious, psychiatric, and substance use disorders: concepts and approaches. AIDS. 2005;19 Suppl 3:S227-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

HIVMA»

Abubakar I, Aliyu SH, Arumugam C, Usman NK, Hunter PR. Treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised individuals: systematic review and meta–analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;63:387-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Beer L, Tie Y, Padilla M, Shouse RL. Generalized anxiety disorder symptoms among persons with diagnosed HIV in the United States. AIDS. 2019 Sep 1;33:1781-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Blair JM, Fagan JL, Frazier EL, et al. Behavioral and clinical characteristics of persons receiving medical care for HIV infection - Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2009. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2014;63 Suppl 5:1-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Foster R, McAllister J, Read TR, et al. Single-tablet emtricitabine-rilpivirine-tenofovir as HIV postexposure prophylaxis in men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1336-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Heslin M, Jewell A, Croxford S, et al. Prevalence of HIV in mental health service users: a retrospective cohort study. BMJ Open. 2023;13:e067337.

PubMed Abstract»

Kroenke K, Wu J, Yu Z, et al. Patient Health Questionnaire Anxiety and Depression Scale: Initial Validation in Three Clinical Trials. Psychosom Med. 2016;78:716-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Lu H, Surkan PJ, Irwin MR, et al. Inflammation and Risk of Depression in HIV: Prospective Findings From the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2019;188:1994-2003.

PubMed Abstract»

Maggi P, Larocca AM, Quarto M, et al. Effect of antiretroviral therapy on cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000;19:213-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Moore CL, Grulich AE, Prestage G, et al. Hospitalization for Anxiety and Mood Disorders in HIV-Infected and -Uninfected Gay and Bisexual Men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;73:589-597.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rossignol JF, Ayoub A, Ayers MS. Treatment of diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium parvum: a prospective randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of Nitazoxanide. J Infect Dis. 2001;184:103-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Siu AL, Bibbins-Domingo K, Grossman DC, et al. Screening for Depression in Adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2016;315:380-7.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

Torian LV, Wiewel EW, Liu KL, Sackoff JE, Frieden TR. Risk factors for delayed initiation of medical care after diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1181-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Underwood J, Winston A. Guidelines for Evaluation and Management of Cognitive Disorders in HIV-Positive Individuals. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2016;13:235-40.

PubMed Abstract»

White AC Jr, Chappell CL, Hayat CS, Kimball KT, Flanigan TP, Goodgame RW. Paromomycin for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS: a prospective, double-blind trial. J Infect Dis. 1994;170:419-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Background

Agrawal A, Lynskey MT. The genetic epidemiology of cannabis use, abuse and dependence. Addiction. 2006;101:801-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Beatty LA, Jones DJ, Doctor L. Reducing HIV/AIDS and criminal justice involvement in African Americans as a consequence of drug abuse. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2005;16:1-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Bush K, Kivlahan DR, McDonell MB, Fihn SD, Bradley KA. The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions (AUDIT-C): an effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Project (ACQUIP). Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:1789-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2015). Behavioral health trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 15-4927, NSDUH Series H-50).

SAMHSA»

Chen CY, Storr CL, Anthony JC. Early-onset drug use and risk for drug dependence problems. Addict Behav. 2009;34:319-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Gage SH, Sumnall HR. Rat Park: How a rat paradise changed the narrative of addiction. Addiction. 2019;114:917-922.

PubMed Abstract»

Hasin DS, O'Brien CP, Auriacombe M, et al. DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: recommendations and rationale. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170:834-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Hinkin CH, Hardy DJ, Mason KI, et al. Medication adherence in HIV-infected adults: effect of patient age, cognitive status, and substance abuse. AIDS. 2004;18 Suppl 1:S19-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Hughes K, Bellis MA, Hardcastle KA, et al. The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health. 2017;2:e356-e366.

PubMed Abstract»

Jones CM, Compton WM, Mustaquim D. Patterns and Characteristics of Methamphetamine Use Among Adults - United States, 2015-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:317-323.

PubMed Abstract»

Knerich V, Jones AA, Seyedin S, et al. Social and structural factors associated with substance use within the support network of adults living in precarious housing in a socially marginalized neighborhood of Vancouver, Canada. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0222611.

PubMed Abstract»

Koob GF. The neurobiology of addiction: a neuroadaptational view relevant for diagnosis. Addiction. 2006;101 Suppl 1:23-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Krist AH, Davidson KW, Mangione CM, et al. Screening for Unhealthy Drug Use: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2020;323:2301-2309.

PubMed Abstract»

Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, et al. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108:2693-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Patnode CD, Perdue LA, Rushkin M, O’Connor EA. Screening for Unhealthy Drug Use in Primary Care in Adolescents and Adults, Including Pregnant Persons: Updated Systematic Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force [Internet]. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2020 Jun. Report No.:19-05255-EF-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Rao U, Ryan ND, Dahl RE, et al. Factors associated with the development of substance use disorder in depressed adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38:1109-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Rowan ZR. Social Risk Factors of Black and White Adolescents' Substance Use: The Differential Role of Siblings and Best Friends. J Youth Adolesc. 2016;45:1482-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Saunders JB, Aasland OG, Babor TF, de la Fuente JR, Grant M. Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO Collaborative Project on Early Detection of Persons with Harmful Alcohol Consumption--II. Addiction. 1993;88:791-804.

PubMed Abstract»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2019). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP19-5068, NSDUH Series H-54). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Substance Use Disorders.

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2022). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP22-07-01-005, NSDUH Series H-57). Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. December 2022.

SAMHSA»

Tsuang MT, Bar JL, Harley RM, Lyons MJ. The Harvard Twin Study of Substance Abuse: what we have learned. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2001;9:267-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Tsuang MT, Lyons MJ, Meyer JM, et al. Co-occurrence of abuse of different drugs in men: the role of drug-specific and shared vulnerabilities. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:967-72.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Curry SJ, Krist AH, et al. Screening and Behavioral Counseling Interventions to Reduce Unhealthy Alcohol Use in Adolescents and Adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2018;320:1899-1909.

PubMed Abstract»

Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Med. 2005 Nov-Dec;6(6):432-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Screening for Substance Use Disorders

PubMed Abstract»

Crane HM, Lober W, Webster E, et al. Routine collection of patient-reported outcomes in an HIV clinic setting: the first 100 patients. Curr HIV Res. 2007;5:109-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Fiellin DA, Reid MC, O'Connor PG. Screening for alcohol problems in primary care: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:1977-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Fredericksen R, Crane PK, Tufano J, et al. Integrating a web-based, patient-administered assessment into primary care for HIV-infected adults. J AIDS HIV Res. 2012;4:47-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Fredericksen RJ, Edwards TC, Merlin JS, et al. Patient and provider priorities for self-reported domains of HIV clinical care. AIDS Care. 2015;27:1255-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Krist AH, Davidson KW, Mangione CM, et al. Screening for Unhealthy Drug Use: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2020;323:2301-2309.

PubMed Abstract»

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician's Guide. NIH Publication No. 07–3769. Updated 2005 Edition.

NIAAA»

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). NIDA Quick Screen and NIDA-Modified ASSIST

NIDA»

PubMed Abstract»

WHO ASSIST Working Group. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002;97:1183-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Epidemiology of Substance Use in United States

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Incorporating Alcohol Pharmacotherapies into Medical Practice. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 49. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 09-4380. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2009.

SAMHSA»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Durvasula R, Miller TR. Substance abuse treatment in persons with HIV/AIDS: challenges in managing triple diagnosis. Behav Med. 2014;40:43-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Galvan FH, Bing EG, Fleishman JA, et al. The prevalence of alcohol consumption and heavy drinking among people with HIV in the United States: results from the HIV Cost and Services Utilization Study. J Stud Alcohol. 2002;63:179-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Jamal A, Homa DM, O'Connor E, et al. Current Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2005-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:1233-40.

PubMed Abstract»

National Center for Health Statistics, National Health Interview Survey, 2015-2018. Crude percentages of all types of heart disease for adults aged 18 and over, United States, 2015-2018. Accessed April 29, 2020.

National Center for Health Statistics»

HIV.gov»

Reynolds NR. Cigarette smoking and HIV: more evidence for action. AIDS Educ Prev. 2009;21:106-21.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Substance Use Disorders in People with HIV

Agudelo M, Khatavkar P, Yndart A, et al. Alcohol abuse and HIV infection: role of DRD2. Curr HIV Res. 2014;12:234-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Baum MK, Rafie C, Lai S, Sales S, Page B, Campa A. Crack-cocaine use accelerates HIV disease progression in a cohort of HIV-positive drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;50:93-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Baum MK, Rafie C, Lai S, Sales S, Page JB, Campa A. Alcohol use accelerates HIV disease progression. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2010;26:511-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bavinton BR, Pinto AN, Phanuphak N, et al. Viral suppression and HIV transmission in serodiscordant male couples: an international, prospective, observational, cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e438-e447.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Celentano DD, Lucas G. Optimizing treatment outcomes in HIV-infected patients with substance abuse issues. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S318-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Cook JA, Burke-Miller JK, Cohen MH, et al. Crack cocaine, disease progression, and mortality in a multicenter cohort of HIV-1 positive women. AIDS. 2008;22:1355-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Cropsey KL, Willig JH, Mugavero MJ, et al. Cigarette Smokers are Less Likely to Have Undetectable Viral Loads: Results From Four HIV Clinics. J Addict Med. 2016;10:13-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Durvasula R, Miller TR. Substance abuse treatment in persons with HIV/AIDS: challenges in managing triple diagnosis. Behav Med. 2014;40:43-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Edelman EJ, Cheng DM, Krupitsky EM, et al. Heroin Use and HIV Disease Progression: Results from a Pilot Study of a Russian Cohort. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:1089-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Fanucchi L, Springer SA, Korthuis PT. Medications for Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder among Persons Living with HIV. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2019;16:1-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Forrest DW, Metsch LR, LaLota M, Cardenas G, Beck DW, Jeanty Y. Crystal methamphetamine use and sexual risk behaviors among HIV-positive and HIV-negative men who have sex with men in South Florida. J Urban Health. 2010;87:480-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Hinkin CH, Hardy DJ, Mason KI, et al. Medication adherence in HIV-infected adults: effect of patient age, cognitive status, and substance abuse. AIDS. 2004;18 Suppl 1:S19-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Kalichman SC, Grebler T, Amaral CM, et al. Viral suppression and antiretroviral medication adherence among alcohol using HIV-positive adults. Int J Behav Med. 2014;21:811-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Malbergier A, Amaral RA, Cardoso LD. Alcohol dependence and CD4 cell count: is there a relationship? AIDS Care. 2015;27:54-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Mellins CA, Havens JF, McDonnell C, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral medications and medical care in HIV-infected adults diagnosed with mental and substance abuse disorders. AIDS Care. 2009;21:168-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Milloy MJ, Marshall B, Kerr T, et al. High-intensity cannabis use associated with lower plasma human immunodeficiency virus-1 RNA viral load among recently infected people who use injection drugs. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2015;34:135-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina PE, Bagby GJ, Nelson S. Biomedical consequences of alcohol use disorders in the HIV-infected host. Curr HIV Res. 2014;12:265-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Passaro RC, Pandhare J, Qian HZ, Dash C. The Complex Interaction Between Methamphetamine Abuse and HIV-1 Pathogenesis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2015;10:477-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Pence BW, Miller WC, Gaynes BN, Eron JJ Jr. Psychiatric illness and virologic response in patients initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:159-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Plankey MW, Ostrow DG, Stall R, et al. The relationship between methamphetamine and popper use and risk of HIV seroconversion in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:85-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Rajasingham R, Mimiaga MJ, White JM, Pinkston MM, Baden RP, Mitty JA. A systematic review of behavioral and treatment outcome studies among HIV-infected men who have sex with men who abuse crystal methamphetamine. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012;26:36-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Remien RH, Bauman LJ, Mantell JE, et al. Barriers and facilitators to engagement of vulnerable populations in HIV primary care in New York City. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;69 Suppl 1:S16-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Roux P, Carrieri MP, Cohen J, et al. Retention in opioid substitution treatment: a major predictor of long-term virological success for HIV-infected injection drug users receiving antiretroviral treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1433-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Sohler NL, Wong MD, Cunningham WE, Cabral H, Drainoni ML, Cunningham CO. Type and pattern of illicit drug use and access to health care services for HIV-infected people. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21 Suppl 1:S68-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Surratt HL, O'Grady CL, Levi-Minzi MA, Kurtz SP. Medication adherence challenges among HIV positive substance abusers: the role of food and housing insecurity. AIDS Care. 2015;27:307-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Valiathan R, Miguez MJ, Patel B, Arheart KL, Asthana D. Tobacco smoking increases immune activation and impairs T-cell function in HIV infected patients on antiretrovirals: a cross-sectional pilot study. PLoS One. 2014;9:e97698.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Alcohol Use Disorder

Agaku IT, King BA, Husten CG, et al. Tobacco product use among adults--United States, 2012-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:542-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Anton RF, Moak DH, Latham P, et al. Naltrexone combined with either cognitive behavioral or motivational enhancement therapy for alcohol dependence. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005;25:349-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Anton RF, O'Malley SS, Ciraulo DA, et al. Combined pharmacotherapies and behavioral interventions for alcohol dependence: the COMBINE study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006;295:2003-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Anton RF. Naltrexone for the management of alcohol dependence. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:715-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Blodgett JC, Del Re AC, Maisel NC, Finney JW. A meta-analysis of topiramate's effects for individuals with alcohol use disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2014;38:1481-8.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Chander G, Josephs J, Fleishman JA, et al. Alcohol use among HIV-infected persons in care: results of a multi-site survey. HIV Med. 2008;9:196-202.

PubMed Abstract»

Crane HM, McCaul ME, Chander G, et al. Prevalence and Factors Associated with Hazardous Alcohol Use Among Persons Living with HIV Across the US in the Current Era of Antiretroviral Treatment. AIDS Behav. 2017;21:1914-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Cvetkovic RS, Goa KL. Lopinavir/ritonavir: a review of its use in the management of HIV infection. Drugs. 2003;63:769-802.

PubMed Abstract»

Edelman EJ, Moore BA, Holt SR, et al. Efficacy of Extended-Release Naltrexone on HIV-Related and Drinking Outcomes Among HIV-Positive Patients: A Randomized-Controlled Trial. AIDS Behav. 2019;23:211-221.

PubMed Abstract»

Fiellin DA, Reid MC, O'Connor PG. Screening for alcohol problems in primary care: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:1977-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Flanagan JC, Jones JL, Jarnecke AM, Back SE. Behavioral Treatments for Alcohol Use Disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Alcohol Res. 2018;39:181-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Friedmann PD. Clinical practice. Alcohol use in adults. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jan 24;368:365-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Garbutt JC, Kranzler HR, O'Malley SS, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of long-acting injectable naltrexone for alcohol dependence: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:1617-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Gekker G, Lokensgard JR, Peterson PK. Naltrexone potentiates anti-HIV-1 activity of antiretroviral drugs in CD4+ lymphocyte cultures. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001;64:257-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Guglielmo R, Martinotti G, Quatrale M, et al. Topiramate in Alcohol Use Disorders: Review and Update. CNS Drugs. 2015;29:383-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Hasin DS, O'Brien CP, Auriacombe M, et al. DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: recommendations and rationale. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170:834-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Jonas DE, Amick HR, Feltner C, et al. Pharmacotherapy for adults with alcohol use disorders in outpatient settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2014;311:1889-900.

PubMed Abstract»

Jonas DE, Garbutt JC, Amick HR, et al. Behavioral counseling after screening for alcohol misuse in primary care: a systematic review and meta-analysis for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157:645-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Kenna GA, McGeary JE, Swift RM. Pharmacotherapy, pharmacogenomics, and the future of alcohol dependence treatment, part 1. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2004;61:2272-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Kranzler HR, Soyka M. Diagnosis and Pharmacotherapy of Alcohol Use Disorder: A Review. JAMA. 2018;320:815-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Kranzler HR, Soyka M. Diagnosis and Pharmacotherapy of Alcohol Use Disorder: A Review. JAMA. 2018;320:815-824.

PubMed Abstract»

Kranzler HR, Wesson DR, Billot L. Naltrexone depot for treatment of alcohol dependence: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2004;28:1051-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Litten RZ, Castle IJ, Falk D, et al. The placebo effect in clinical trials for alcohol dependence: an exploratory analysis of 51 naltrexone and acamprosate studies. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2013;37:2128-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Lobmaier PP, Kunøe N, Gossop M, Waal H. Naltrexone depot formulations for opioid and alcohol dependence: a systematic review. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2011;17:629-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Maisel NC, Blodgett JC, Wilbourne PL, Humphreys K, Finney JW. Meta-analysis of naltrexone and acamprosate for treating alcohol use disorders: when are these medications most helpful? Addiction. 2013;108:275-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Mason BJ, Heyser CJ. Acamprosate: a prototypic neuromodulator in the treatment of alcohol dependence. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2010;9:23-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Mason BJ, Quello S, Goodell V, Shadan F, Kyle M, Begovic A. Gabapentin treatment for alcohol dependence: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:70-7.

PubMed Abstract»

McCance-Katz EF, Gruber VA, Beatty G, et al. Interaction of disulfiram with antiretroviral medications: efavirenz increases while atazanavir decreases disulfiram effect on enzymes of alcohol metabolism. Am J Addict. 2014;23:137-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyer VA. Screening and behavioral counseling interventions in primary care to reduce alcohol misuse: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159:210-8.

PubMed Abstract»

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Helping Patients Who Drink Too Much: A Clinician's Guide. NIH Publication No. 07–3769. Updated 2005 Edition.

NIAAA»

HIV.gov»

Rösner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Lehert P, Vecchi S, Soyka M. Acamprosate for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD004332.

PubMed Abstract»

Rösner S, Leucht S, Lehert P, Soyka M. Acamprosate supports abstinence, naltrexone prevents excessive drinking: evidence from a meta-analysis with unreported outcomes. J Psychopharmacol. 2008;22:11-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Sass H, Soyka M, Mann K, Zieglgänsberger W. Relapse prevention by acamprosate. Results from a placebo-controlled study on alcohol dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53:673-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Schuckit MA. Genetics of the risk for alcoholism. Am J Addict. 2000 Spring;9:103-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Shinn AK, Greenfield SF. Topiramate in the treatment of substance-related disorders: a critical review of the literature. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71:634-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Skinner MD, Lahmek P, Pham H, Aubin HJ. Disulfiram efficacy in the treatment of alcohol dependence: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014;9:e87366.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1155-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. Primary care validation of a single-question alcohol screening test. J Gen Intern Med. 2009;24:783-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Spanagel R, Zieglgänsberger W. Anti-craving compounds for ethanol: new pharmacological tools to study addictive processes. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1997;18:54-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Spillane S, Shiels MS, Best AF, et al. Trends in Alcohol-Induced Deaths in the United States, 2000-2016. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3:e1921451.

PubMed Abstract»

Springer SA, Di Paola A, Azar MM, et al. Extended-Release Naltrexone Improves Viral Suppression Among Incarcerated Persons Living With HIV With Opioid Use Disorders Transitioning to the Community: Results of a Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Randomized Trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;78:43-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Stoddard J, Zummo J. Oral and long-acting injectable naltrexone: removal of boxed warning for hepatotoxicity. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76:1695.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Substance Use Disorders.

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Medication for the treatment of alcohol use disorder: a brief guide. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 15-4907. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, October, 2015.

SAMHSA»

Tetrault JM, Tate JP, McGinnis KA, et al. Hepatic safety and antiretroviral effectiveness in HIV-infected patients receiving naltrexone. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2012;36:318-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Vagenas P, Di Paola A, Herme M, et al. An evaluation of hepatic enzyme elevations among HIV-infected released prisoners enrolled in two randomized placebo-controlled trials of extended release naltrexone. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2014;47:35-40.

PubMed Abstract»

White AM, Castle IP, Hingson RW, Powell PA. Using Death Certificates to Explore Changes in Alcohol-Related Mortality in the United States, 1999 to 2017. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2020;44:178-187.

PubMed Abstract»

Whitworth AB, Fischer F, Lesch OM, et al. Comparison of acamprosate and placebo in long-term treatment of alcohol dependence. Lancet. 1996;347:1438-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilson N, Kariisa M, Seth P, Smith H 4th, Davis NL. Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths —United States, 2017-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:290-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilson SR, Knowles SB, Huang Q, Fink A. The prevalence of harmful and hazardous alcohol consumption in older U.S. adults: data from the 2005-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29:312-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Witkiewitz K, Litten RZ, Leggio L. Advances in the science and treatment of alcohol use disorder. Sci Adv. 2019;5:eaax4043.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Cannabis Use Disorder

Baum MK, Rafie C, Lai S, Sales S, Page JB, Campa A. Alcohol use accelerates HIV disease progression. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2010;26:511-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Brackins T, Brahm NC, Kissack JC. Treatments for methamphetamine abuse: a literature review for the clinician. J Pharm Pract. 2011;24:541-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. A two-item conjoint screen for alcohol and other drug problems. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2001;14:95-106.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995;94:135-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Carrico AW, Flentje A, Gruber VA, et al. Community-based harm reduction substance abuse treatment with methamphetamine-using men who have sex with men. J Urban Health. 2014;91:555-67.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Colfax G, Guzman R. Club drugs and HIV infection: a review. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:1463-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Colfax GN, Santos GM, Das M, et al. Mirtazapine to reduce methamphetamine use: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68:1168-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Cooper K, Chatters R, Kaltenthaler E, Wong R. Psychological and psychosocial interventions for cannabis cessation in adults: a systematic review short report. Health Technol Assess. 2015;19:1-130.

PubMed Abstract»

Crane HM, Lober W, Webster E, et al. Routine collection of patient-reported outcomes in an HIV clinic setting: the first 100 patients. Curr HIV Res. 2007;5:109-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Feldman MB, Thomas JA, Alexy ER, Irvine MK. Crystal methamphetamine use and HIV medical outcomes among HIV-infected men who have sex with men accessing support services in New York. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;147:266-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Fredericksen R, Crane PK, Tufano J, et al. Integrating a web-based, patient-administered assessment into primary care for HIV-infected adults. J AIDS HIV Res. 2012;4:47-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Fredericksen RJ, Edwards TC, Merlin JS, et al. Patient and provider priorities for self-reported domains of HIV clinical care. AIDS Care. 2015;27:1255-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Jin H, Huriaux E, Loughran E, Packer T, Raymond HF. Differences in HIV risk behaviors among people who inject drugs by gender and sexual orientation, San Francisco, 2012. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;145:180-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Kishi T, Matsuda Y, Iwata N, Correll CU. Antipsychotics for cocaine or psychostimulant dependence: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:e1169-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Knapp WP, Soares BG, Farrel M, Lima MS. Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamines related disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;:CD003023.

PubMed Abstract»

Koblin BA, Murrill C, Camacho M, et al. Amphetamine use and sexual risk among men who have sex with men: results from the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance study--New York City. Subst Use Misuse. 2007;42:1613-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Kondo KK, Morasco BJ, Nugent SM, et al. Pharmacotherapy for the Treatment of Cannabis Use Disorder: A Systematic Review. Ann Intern Med. 2020;172:398-412.

PubMed Abstract»

Lake S, Kerr T, Capler R, Shoveller J, Montaner J, Milloy MJ. High-intensity cannabis use and HIV clinical outcomes among HIV-positive people who use illicit drugs in Vancouver, Canada. Int J Drug Policy. 2017;42:63-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee NK, Rawson RA. A systematic review of cognitive and behavioural therapies for methamphetamine dependence. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2008;27:309-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Lorenz DR, Dutta A, Mukerji SS, Holman A, Uno H, Gabuzda D. Marijuana Use Impacts Midlife Cardiovascular Events in HIV-Infected Men. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:626-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Marshall K, Gowing L, Ali R, Le Foll B. Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;12:CD008940.

PubMed Abstract»

McNeely J, Strauss SM, Saitz R, et al. A Brief Patient Self-administered Substance Use Screening Tool for Primary Care: Two-site Validation Study of the Substance Use Brief Screen (SUBS). Am J Med. 2015;128:784.e9-19.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pérez-Mañá C, Castells X, Torrens M, Capellà D, Farre M. Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;:CD009695.

PubMed Abstract»

Shoptaw S, Reback CJ. Associations between methamphetamine use and HIV among men who have sex with men: a model for guiding public policy. J Urban Health. 2006;83:1151-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1155-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Steinberg KL, Roffman RA, Carroll KM, et al. Brief counseling for marijuana dependence: a manual for treating adults. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 05-4022. Rockville, MD: Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), 2005.

SAMHSA»

Stinson FS, Ruan WJ, Pickering R, Grant BF. Cannabis use disorders in the USA: prevalence, correlates and co-morbidity. Psychol Med. 2006;36:1447-60.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices (NREPP). Brief Marijuana Dependence Counseling (BMDC).

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Substance Use Disorders.

SAMHSA»

Weinstein AM, Gorelick DA. Pharmacological treatment of cannabis dependence. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17:1351-8.

PubMed Abstract»

WHO ASSIST Working Group. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST): development, reliability and feasibility. Addiction. 2002;97:1183-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2007;32:189-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Hallucinogen Use Disorder

Bracchi M, Stuart D, Castles R, Khoo S, Back D, Boffito M. Increasing use of 'party drugs' in people living with HIV on antiretrovirals: a concern for patient safety. AIDS. 2015;29:1585-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. A two-item conjoint screen for alcohol and other drug problems. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2001;14:95-106.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995;94:135-40.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Colfax G, Guzman R. Club drugs and HIV infection: a review. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:1463-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Krebs TS, Johansen PØ. Psychedelics and mental health: a population study. PLoS One. 2013;8:e63972.

PubMed Abstract»

Romanelli F, Smith KM, Pomeroy C. Use of club drugs by HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative gay and bisexual men. Top HIV Med. 2003;11:25-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1155-60.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Substance Use Disorders.

SAMHSA»

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2007;32:189-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Opioid Use Disorder

Abdul-Quader AS, Feelemyer J, Modi S, et al. Effectiveness of structural-level needle/syringe programs to reduce HCV and HIV infection among people who inject drugs: a systematic review. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:2878-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Abraham AJ, Adams GB, Bradford AC, Bradford WD. County-level access to opioid use disorder medications in medicare Part D (2010-2015). Health Serv Res. 2019;54:390-398.

PubMed Abstract»

Agrawal A, Lynskey MT. The genetic epidemiology of cannabis use, abuse and dependence. Addiction. 2006;101:801-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Bachhuber MA, McGinty EE, Kennedy-Hendricks A, Niederdeppe J, Barry CL. Messaging to Increase Public Support for Naloxone Distribution Policies in the United States: Results from a Randomized Survey Experiment. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0130050.

PubMed Abstract»

Bailey GL, Herman DS, Stein MD. Perceived relapse risk and desire for medication assisted treatment among persons seeking inpatient opiate detoxification. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2013;45:302-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Bart G. Maintenance medication for opiate addiction: the foundation of recovery. J Addict Dis. 2012;31:207-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. A two-item conjoint screen for alcohol and other drug problems. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2001;14:95-106.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995;94:135-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Broz D, Wejnert C, Pham HT, et al. HIV infection and risk, prevention, and testing behaviors among injecting drug users -- National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System, 20 U.S. cities, 2009. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2014;63:1-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Bruce RD, Moody DE, Altice FL, Gourevitch MN, Friedland GH. A review of pharmacological interactions between HIV or hepatitis C virus medications and opioid agonist therapy: implications and management for clinical practice. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2013;6:249-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Case A, Deaton A. Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112:15078-83.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Clinical Guidelines for the Use of Buprenorphine in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 40. DHHS Publication no. (SMA) 04-3939. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2004.

SAMHSA»

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Medication-Assisted Treatment for Opioid Addiction in Opioid Treatment Programs. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 43. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 12-4214. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2005.

SAMHSA»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Preliminary). HIV Surveillance Report, 2019; vol. 30:1-129. Published November 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Compton WM, Jones CM, Baldwin GT. Relationship between nonmedical prescription-opioid use and heroin use. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:154-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Conrad C, Bradley HM, Broz D, et al. Community Outbreak of HIV Infection Linked to Injection Drug Use of Oxymorphone--Indiana, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:443-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Cunningham CO. Opioids and HIV Infection: From Pain Management to Addiction Treatment. Top Antivir Med. 2018;25:143-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Department of Health and Human Services. Practice Guidelines for the Administration of Buprenorphine for Treating Opioid Use Disorder. April 28, 2021.

Department of Health and Human Services.»

Department of Health and Human Services. Practice Guidelines for the Administration of Buprenorphine for Treating Opioid Use Disorder. Federal Register / Vol. 86, No. 80 / Wednesday, April 28, 2021

DHHS»

Des Jarlais DC. Structural interventions to reduce HIV transmission among injecting drug users. AIDS. 2000;14 Suppl 1:S41-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Fareed A, Casarella J, Amar R, Vayalapalli S, Drexler K. Methadone maintenance dosing guideline for opioid dependence, a literature review. J Addict Dis. 2010;29:1-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Finkelstein R, Netherland J, Sylla L, Gourevitch MN, Cajina A, Cheever L. Policy implications of integrating buprenorphine/naloxone treatment and HIV care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;56 Suppl 1:S98-S104.

PubMed Abstract»

Fudala PJ, Bridge TP, Herbert S, et al. Office-based treatment of opiate addiction with a sublingual-tablet formulation of buprenorphine and naloxone. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:949-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Golden MR, Lechtenberg R, Glick SN, et al. Outbreak of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Among Heterosexual Persons Who Are Living Homeless and Inject Drugs - Seattle, Washington, 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:344-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, An Q, Tang T, et al. Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:657-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Hedegaard H, Miniño AM, Spencer MR, Warner M. Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 1999–2020. NCHS Data Brief, no 428. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2021.

NCHS»

Hser YI, Evans E, Grella C, Ling W, Anglin D. Long-term course of opioid addiction. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2015;23:76-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Itzoe M, Guarnieri M. New developments in managing opioid addiction: impact of a subdermal buprenorphine implant. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2017;11:1429-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Jamison RN, Sheehan KA, Scanlan E, Matthews M, Ross EL. Beliefs and attitudes about opioid prescribing and chronic pain management: survey of primary care providers. J Opioid Manag. 2014;10:375-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Jannetto PJ, Helander A, Garg U, Janis GC, Goldberger B, Ketha H. The Fentanyl Epidemic and Evolution of Fentanyl Analogs in the United States and the European Union. Clin Chem. 2019;65:242-253.

PubMed Abstract»

Jones CM, Logan J, Gladden RM, Bohm MK. Vital Signs: Demographic and Substance Use Trends Among Heroin Users - United States, 2002-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:719-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Jozaghi E, Andresen MM. Should North America's first and only supervised injection facility (InSite) be expanded in British Columbia, Canada? Harm Reduct J. 2013;10:1.

PubMed Abstract»

Khalsa J, Vocci F, Altice F, Fiellin D, Miller V. Buprenorphine and HIV primary care: new opportunities for integrated treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43 Suppl 4:S169-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Kourounis G, Richards BD, Kyprianou E, Symeonidou E, Malliori MM, Samartzis L. Opioid substitution therapy: Lowering the treatment thresholds. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;161:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Krupitsky E, Nunes EV, Ling W, Illeperuma A, Gastfriend DR, Silverman BL. Injectable extended-release naltrexone for opioid dependence: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre randomised trial. Lancet. 2011;377:1506-13.

PubMed Abstract»

LaBelle CT, Han SC, Bergeron A, Samet JH. Office-Based Opioid Treatment with Buprenorphine (OBOT-B): Statewide Implementation of the Massachusetts Collaborative Care Model in Community Health Centers. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2016;60:6-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Larochelle MR, Bernson D, Land T, et al. Medication for Opioid Use Disorder After Nonfatal Opioid Overdose and Association With Mortality: A Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169:137-145.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee JD, Friedmann PD, Kinlock TW, et al. Extended-Release Naltrexone to Prevent Opioid Relapse in Criminal Justice Offenders. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:1232-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee JD, Nunes EV Jr, Novo P, et al. Comparative effectiveness of extended-release naltrexone versus buprenorphine-naloxone for opioid relapse prevention (X:BOT): a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2018;391:309-318.

PubMed Abstract»

Lum PJ, Little S, Botsko M, et al. Opioid-prescribing practices and provider confidence recognizing opioid analgesic abuse in HIV primary care settings. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;56 Suppl 1:S91-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2:CD002207.

PubMed Abstract»

McCabe SE, West BT, Teter CJ, Boyd CJ. Medical and nonmedical use of prescription opioids among high school seniors in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166:797-802.

PubMed Abstract»

McHugh RK, Nielsen S, Weiss RD. Prescription drug abuse: from epidemiology to public policy. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2015;48:1-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Meader N, Li R, Des Jarlais DC, Pilling S. Psychosocial interventions for reducing injection and sexual risk behaviour for preventing HIV in drug users. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD007192.

PubMed Abstract»

Minozzi S, Amato L, Vecchi S, Davoli M, Kirchmayer U, Verster A. Oral naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;:CD001333.

PubMed Abstract»

Murphy SM, McCollister KE, Leff JA, et al. Cost-Effectiveness of Buprenorphine-Naloxone Versus Extended-Release Naltrexone to Prevent Opioid Relapse. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170:90-98.

PubMed Abstract»

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Drug Overdose Death Rates

NIDA»

Nguyen TA, Hahn JH, Strakowski SM. Pharmacotherapies for treating opioid use disorder. CNS Spectr. 2013;18:289-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Nosyk B, Min JE, Evans E, et al. The Effects of Opioid Substitution Treatment and Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy on the Cause-Specific Risk of Mortality Among HIV-Positive People Who Inject Drugs. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1157-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Palmateer N, Kimber J, Hickman M, Hutchinson S, Rhodes T, Goldberg D. Evidence for the effectiveness of sterile injecting equipment provision in preventing hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus transmission among injecting drug users: a review of reviews. Addiction. 2010;105:844-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Peters PJ, Pontones P, Hoover KW, et al. HIV Infection Linked to Injection Use of Oxymorphone in Indiana, 2014-2015. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:229-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Prescription Behavior Surveillance System (PBSS). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Issue Brief. July 2017.

CDC»

Rosenthal RN, Goradia VV. Advances in the delivery of buprenorphine for opioid dependence. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2017;11:2493-2505.

PubMed Abstract»

Rudd RA, Aleshire N, Zibbell JE, Gladden RM. Increases in Drug and Opioid Overdose Deaths - United States, 2000-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;64:1378-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1155-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Stoddard J, Zummo J. Oral and long-acting injectable naltrexone: removal of boxed warning for hepatotoxicity. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76:1695.

PubMed Abstract»

Strathdee SA, Beyrer C. Threading the Needle--How to Stop the HIV Outbreak in Rural Indiana. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:397-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Strayer RJ, Hawk K, Hayes BD, et al. Management of Opioid Use Disorder in the Emergency Department: A White Paper Prepared for the American Academy of Emergency Medicine. J Emerg Med. 2020;58:522-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Stringer J, Welsh C, Tommasello A. Methadone-associated Q-T interval prolongation and torsades de pointes. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2009;66:825-33.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Buprenorphine treatment physician locator.

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Buprenorphine.

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Medications for Opioid Use Disorder. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 63. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 09-4380. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Updated 2021.

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Substance Use Disorders.

SAMHSA»

The Network for Public Health Law. Legal interventions to reduce overdose mortality: naloxone access and overdose Good Samaritan laws.

Network for Public Health Law»

Vancouver Coastal Health/Insite - Supervised Injection Site

Insite»

Vlahov D, Junge B. The role of needle exchange programs in HIV prevention. Public Health Rep. 1998;113 Suppl 1:75-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Walley AY, Palmisano J, Sorensen-Alawad A, et al. Engagement and Substance Dependence in a Primary Care-Based Addiction Treatment Program for People Infected with HIV and People at High-Risk for HIV Infection. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2015;59:59-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Walley AY, Xuan Z, Hackman HH, et al. Opioid overdose rates and implementation of overdose education and nasal naloxone distribution in Massachusetts: interrupted time series analysis. BMJ. 2013;346:f174.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiner SG , MD, MPH, Baker O , PhD, Bernson D , MPH, Schuur JD , MD, MS. One year mortality of patients treated with naloxone for opioid overdose by emergency medical services. Subst Abus. 2020:1-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiss L, Egan JE, Botsko M, Netherland J, Fiellin DA, Finkelstein R. The BHIVES collaborative: organization and evaluation of a multisite demonstration of integrated buprenorphine/naloxone and HIV treatment. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;56 Suppl 1:S7-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiss L, Netherland J, Egan JE, et al. Integration of buprenorphine/naloxone treatment into HIV clinical care: lessons from the BHIVES collaborative. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;56 Suppl 1:S68-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilson N, Kariisa M, Seth P, Smith H 4th, Davis NL. Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths —United States, 2017-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:290-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Wright AP, Becker WC, Schiff GD. Strategies for Flipping the Script on Opioid Overprescribing. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:7-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2007;32:189-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Stimulant Use Disorder

Al-Tayyib A, Koester S, Langegger S, Raville L. Heroin and Methamphetamine Injection: An Emerging Drug Use Pattern. Subst Use Misuse. 2017;52:1051-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Baum MK, Rafie C, Lai S, Sales S, Page B, Campa A. Crack-cocaine use accelerates HIV disease progression in a cohort of HIV-positive drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;50:93-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Brackins T, Brahm NC, Kissack JC. Treatments for methamphetamine abuse: a literature review for the clinician. J Pharm Pract. 2011;24:541-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Leonard T, Saunders LA, Papasouliotis O. A two-item conjoint screen for alcohol and other drug problems. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2001;14:95-106.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RL, Rounds LA. Conjoint screening questionnaires for alcohol and other drug abuse: criterion validity in a primary care practice. Wis Med J. 1995;94:135-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Carrico AW, Flentje A, Gruber VA, et al. Community-based harm reduction substance abuse treatment with methamphetamine-using men who have sex with men. J Urban Health. 2014;91:555-67.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Coffin PO, Santos GM, Hern J, et al. Effects of Mirtazapine for Methamphetamine Use Disorder Among Cisgender Men and Transgender Women Who Have Sex With Men: A Placebo-Controlled Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019:77:246-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Colfax G, Guzman R. Club drugs and HIV infection: a review. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:1463-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Colfax GN, Santos GM, Das M, et al. Mirtazapine to reduce methamphetamine use: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68:1168-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Daniulaityte R, Silverstein SM, Crawford TN, et al. Methamphetamine Use and Its Correlates among Individuals with Opioid Use Disorder in a Midwestern U.S. City. Subst Use Misuse. 2020;:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Glick SN, Burt R, Kummer K, Tinsley J, Banta-Green CJ, Golden MR. Increasing methamphetamine injection among non-MSM who inject drugs in King County, Washington. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;182:86-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoenigl M, Chaillon A, Moore DJ, Morris SR, Smith DM, Little SJ. Clear Links Between Starting Methamphetamine and Increasing Sexual Risk Behavior: A Cohort Study Among Men Who Have Sex With Men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;71:551-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Hood JE, Buskin SE, Golden MR, Glick SN, Banta-Green C, Dombrowski JC. The Changing Burden of HIV Attributable to Methamphetamine Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in King County, Washington. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2018;32:223-233.

PubMed Abstract»

Knapp WP, Soares BG, Farrel M, Lima MS. Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamines related disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;:CD003023.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee NK, Rawson RA. A systematic review of cognitive and behavioural therapies for methamphetamine dependence. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2008;27:309-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Nerlander LMC, Hoots BE, Bradley H, Broz D, Thorson A, Paz-Bailey G. HIV infection among MSM who inject methamphetamine in 8 US cities. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;190:216-223.

PubMed Abstract»

Palamar JJ, Han BH, Keyes KM. Trends in characteristics of individuals who use methamphetamine in the United States, 2015-2018. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;213:108089.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pérez-Mañá C, Castells X, Torrens M, Capellà D, Farre M. Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;:CD009695.

PubMed Abstract»

Shoptaw S, Reback CJ. Associations between methamphetamine use and HIV among men who have sex with men: a model for guiding public policy. J Urban Health. 2006;83:1151-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith PC, Schmidt SM, Allensworth-Davies D, Saitz R. A single-question screening test for drug use in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1155-60.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Buprenorphine.

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Substance Use Disorders.

SAMHSA»

Trivedi MH, Walker R, Ling W, et al. Bupropion and Naltrexone in Methamphetamine Use Disorder. N Engl J Med. 2021;384:140-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A. A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2007;32:189-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 7. Substance Use Disorders

Tobacco Use Disorder

Agaku IT, King BA, Husten CG, et al. Tobacco product use among adults--United States, 2012-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:542-7.

PubMed Abstract»

American Academy of Family Physicians. Tobacco and Nicotine Cessation Toolkit.

AAFP»

Ashare RL, Thompson M, Serrano K, et al. Placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial testing the efficacy and safety of varenicline for smokers with HIV. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;200:26-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Borup G, Mikkelsen KL, Tønnesen P, Christrup LL. Exploratory survey study of long-term users of nicotine replacement therapy in Danish consumers. Harm Reduct J. 2015;12:2.

PubMed Abstract»

Butt YM, Smith ML, Tazelaar HD, et al. Pathology of Vaping-Associated Lung Injury. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:1780-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahill K, Stevens S, Perera R, Lancaster T. Pharmacological interventions for smoking cessation: an overview and network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013:CD009329.

PubMed Abstract»

Catley D, Goggin K, Harris KJ, et al. A Randomized Trial of Motivational Interviewing: Cessation Induction Among Smokers With Low Desire to Quit. Am J Prev Med. 2016;50:573-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2017 Cycle (June 2017–May 2018). HIV Surveillance Special Report 23. September 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Civljak M, Stead LF, Hartmann-Boyce J, Sheikh A, Car J. Internet-based interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;:CD007078.

PubMed Abstract»

Cook BL, Wayne GF, Kafali EN, Liu Z, Shu C, Flores M. Trends in smoking among adults with mental illness and association between mental health treatment and smoking cessation. JAMA. 2014;311:172-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Cropsey KL, Willig JH, Mugavero MJ, et al. Cigarette Smokers are Less Likely to Have Undetectable Viral Loads: Results From Four HIV Clinics. J Addict Med. 2016;10:13-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hajek P, Phillips-Waller A, Przulj D, et al. A Randomized Trial of E-Cigarettes versus Nicotine-Replacement Therapy. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:629-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Jamal A, Agaku IT, O'Connor E, King BA, Kenemer JB, Neff L. Current cigarette smoking among adults--United States, 2005-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1108-12.

MMWR»

Jamal A, Homa DM, O'Connor E, et al. Current Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2005-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:1233-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Krist AH, Davidson KW, Mangione CM, et al. Interventions for Tobacco Smoking Cessation in Adults, Including Pregnant Persons: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2021;325:265-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Layden JE, Ghinai I, Pray I, et al. Pulmonary Illness Related to E-Cigarette Use in Illinois and Wisconsin - Final Report. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:903-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Le Houezec J, Aubin HJ. Pharmacotherapies and harm-reduction options for the treatment of tobacco dependence. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2013;14:1959-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Lindson-Hawley N, Thompson TP, Begh R. Motivational interviewing for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;:CD006936.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Spillane S, Shiels MS, Best AF, et al. Trends in Alcohol-Induced Deaths in the United States, 2000-2016. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3:e1921451.

PubMed Abstract»

SAMHSA»

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Substance Use Disorders.

SAMHSA»

U.S. Public Health Service. A clinical practice guideline for treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. A U.S. Public Health Service report. Am J Prev Med. 2008;35:158-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Whittaker R, McRobbie H, Bullen C, Rodgers A, Gu Y. Mobile phone-based interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;4:CD006611.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Butt YM, Smith ML, Tazelaar HD, et al. Pathology of Vaping-Associated Lung Injury. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:1780-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral and Clinical Characteristics of Persons with Diagnosed HIV Infection—Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2021 Cycle (June 2021–May 2022). HIV Surveillance Special Report 32. Published August 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Dascomb K, Frazer T, Clark RA, Kissinger P, Didier E. Microsporidiosis and HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;24:290-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Didier ES, Weiss LM. Microsporidiosis: current status. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006;19:485-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Garcia LS. Laboratory identification of the microsporidia. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:1892-901.

PubMed Abstract»

Jamal A, Agaku IT, O'Connor E, King BA, Kenemer JB, Neff L. Current cigarette smoking among adults--United States, 2005-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1108-12.

MMWR»

Layden JE, Ghinai I, Pray I, et al. Pulmonary Illness Related to E-Cigarette Use in Illinois and Wisconsin - Final Report. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:903-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Neukam K, Espinosa N, Collado A, et al. Hepatic Safety of Rilpivirine/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate Fixed-Dose Single-Tablet Regimen in HIV-Infected Patients with Active Hepatitis C Virus Infection: The hEPAtic Study. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0155842.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Spivak AM, Andrade A, Eisele E, et al. A pilot study assessing the safety and latency-reversing activity of disulfiram in HIV-1-infected adults on antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:883-90.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Public Health Service. A clinical practice guideline for treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. A U.S. Public Health Service report. Am J Prev Med. 2008;35:158-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 8. Retention in HIV Care

Module 2 » Lesson 8. Retention in HIV Care

Introduction and HIV Care Continuum

Bradley H, Hall HI, Wolitski RJ, et al. Vital Signs: HIV diagnosis, care, and treatment among persons living with HIV--United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1113-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: HIV prevention through care and treatment--United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:1618-23.

MMWR»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Cheever LW. Engaging HIV-infected patients in care: their lives depend on it. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1500-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Crawford TN. Poor retention in care one-year after viral suppression: a significant predictor of viral rebound. AIDS Care. 2014;26:1393-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Doshi RK, Milberg J, Isenberg D, et al. High rates of retention and viral suppression in the US HIV safety net system: HIV care continuum in the Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program, 2011. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:117-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Gifford AL, White AC Jr, et al. Retention in care: a challenge to survival with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1493-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Health Resources Services Administration (HRSA). HIV Care Continuum

HRSA»

Horberg MA, Hurley LB, Silverberg MJ, Klein DB, Quesenberry CP, Mugavero MJ. Missed office visits and risk of mortality among HIV-infected subjects in a large healthcare system in the United States. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2013;27:442-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Horstmann E, Brown J, Islam F, Buck J, Agins BD. Retaining HIV-infected patients in care: Where are we? Where do we go from here? Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:752-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Kay ES, Batey DS, Mugavero MJ. The HIV treatment cascade and care continuum: updates, goals, and recommendations for the future. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:35.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Sabin CA, Howarth A, Jose S, et al. Association between engagement in-care and mortality in HIV-positive persons. AIDS. 2017;31:653-660.

PubMed Abstract»

Skarbinski J, Rosenberg E, Paz-Bailey G, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission at each step of the care continuum in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:588-96.

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

Yehia BR, French B, Fleishman JA, et al. Retention in care is more strongly associated with viral suppression in HIV-infected patients with lower versus higher CD4 counts. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65:333-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Zinski A, Westfall AO, Gardner LI, et al. The Contribution of Missed Clinic Visits to Disparities in HIV Viral Load Outcomes. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:2068-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 8. Retention in HIV Care

Evaluation of Retention in Care

Bove JM, Golden MR, Dhanireddy S, Harrington RD, Dombrowski JC. Outcomes of a Clinic-Based Surveillance-Informed Intervention to Relink Patients to HIV Care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:262-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Buskin SE, Kent JB, Dombrowski JC, Golden MR. Migration distorts surveillance estimates of engagement in care: results of public health investigations of persons who appear to be out of HIV care. Sex Transm Dis. 2014;41:35-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: HIV prevention through care and treatment--United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:1618-23.

MMWR»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Dombrowski JC, Bove J, Roscoe JC, et al. "Out of Care" HIV Case Investigations: A Collaborative Analysis Across 6 States in the Northwest US. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;74 Suppl 2:S81-S87.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Kent JB, Buskin SE, Stekler JD, Golden MR. Population-based metrics for the timing of HIV diagnosis, engagement in HIV care, and virologic suppression. AIDS. 2012;26:77-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Gifford AL, White AC Jr, et al. Retention in care: a challenge to survival with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1493-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hague JC, John B, Goldman L, et al. Using HIV Surveillance Laboratory Data to Identify Out-of-Care Patients. AIDS Behav. 2019;23:78-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Health Resources and Services Administration. Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program Annual Client-Level Data Report 2017. December 2018:1-130.

HRSA»

Health Resources and Services Administration. Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program Annual Client-Level Data Report 2018. December 2019:1-139.

HRSA»

Health Resources Services Administration (HRSA). Performance Measure Portfolio.

HRSA»

Mugavero MJ, Davila JA, Nevin CR, Giordano TP. From access to engagement: measuring retention in outpatient HIV clinical care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2010;24:607-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Westfall AO, Zinski A, et al. Measuring retention in HIV care: the elusive gold standard. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:574-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Rebeiro PF, Horberg MA, Gange SJ, et al. Strong agreement of nationally recommended retention measures from the Institute of Medicine and Department of Health and Human Services. PLoS One. 2014;9:e111772.

PubMed Abstract»

Ulett KB, Willig JH, Lin HY, et al. The therapeutic implications of timely linkage and early retention in HIV care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:41-9.

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

Yehia BR, Fleishman JA, Metlay JP, et al. Comparing different measures of retention in outpatient HIV care. AIDS. 2012;26:1131-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 8. Retention in HIV Care

Estimating Retention in HIV Medical Care in the United States

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Kent JB, Buskin SE, Stekler JD, Golden MR. Population-based metrics for the timing of HIV diagnosis, engagement in HIV care, and virologic suppression. AIDS. 2012;26:77-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Gifford AL, White AC Jr, et al. Retention in care: a challenge to survival with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1493-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hague JC, John B, Goldman L, et al. Using HIV Surveillance Laboratory Data to Identify Out-of-Care Patients. AIDS Behav. 2019;23:78-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Health Resources and Services Administration. Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program Annual Client-Level Data Report 2017. December 2018:1-130.

HRSA»

Health Resources and Services Administration. Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program Annual Client-Level Data Report 2018. December 2019:1-139.

HRSA»

Health Resources and Services Administration. Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program: Annual Client-Level Data Report. Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program Services Report 2021. December 2022:1-147.

HRSA»

Mugavero MJ, Davila JA, Nevin CR, Giordano TP. From access to engagement: measuring retention in outpatient HIV clinical care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2010;24:607-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Westfall AO, Zinski A, et al. Measuring retention in HIV care: the elusive gold standard. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:574-80.

PubMed Abstract»

The White House. 2021. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States 2022–2025. Washington, DC

The White House: Washington»

Ulett KB, Willig JH, Lin HY, et al. The therapeutic implications of timely linkage and early retention in HIV care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:41-9.

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

Module 2 » Lesson 8. Retention in HIV Care

Factors the May Impact Rates of Retention in Care

Althoff KN, Buchacz K, Hall HI, et al. U.S. trends in antiretroviral therapy use, HIV RNA plasma viral loads, and CD4 T-lymphocyte cell counts among HIV-infected persons, 2000 to 2008. Ann Intern Med. 2012;157:325-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Althoff KN, Rebeiro P, Brooks JT, et al. Disparities in the quality of HIV care when using US Department of Health and Human Services indicators. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1185-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Altice FL, Bruce RD, Lucas GM, et al. HIV treatment outcomes among HIV-infected, opioid-dependent patients receiving buprenorphine/naloxone treatment within HIV clinical care settings: results from a multisite study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;56 Suppl 1:S22-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: HIV prevention through care and treatment--United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:1618-23.

MMWR»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Institutes of Health, American Academy of HIV Medicine, Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, International Association of Providers of AIDS Care, the National Minority AIDS Council, and Urban Coalition for HIV/AIDS Prevention Services. Recommendations for HIV Prevention with Adults and Adolescents with HIV in the United States, 2014. December 11, 2014 (amended December 30, 2016)

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Coyle RP, Schneck CD, Morrow M, et al. Engagement in Mental Health Care is Associated with Higher Cumulative Drug Exposure and Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy. AIDS Behav. 2019;23:3493-502.

PubMed Abstract»

Dailey AF, Johnson AS, Wu B. HIV Care Outcomes Among Blacks with Diagnosed HIV - United States, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:97-103.

PubMed Abstract»

Dasgupta S, Oster AM, Li J, Hall HI. Disparities in Consistent Retention in HIV Care - 11 States and the District of Columbia, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Simoni JM, Katz DA, Golden MR. Barriers to HIV Care and Treatment Among Participants in a Public Health HIV Care Relinkage Program. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:279-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Gant Z, Dailey A, Hu X, Johnson AS. HIV Care Outcomes Among Hispanics or Latinos with Diagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:1065-1072.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Gifford AL, White AC Jr, et al. Retention in care: a challenge to survival with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1493-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Gray KM, Tang T, Li J, Shouse L, Mermin J. Retention in care of adults and adolescents living with HIV in 13 U.S. areas. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;60:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Hartzler B, Dombrowski JC, Williams JR, et al. Influence of Substance Use Disorders on 2-Year HIV Care Retention in the United States. AIDS Behav. 2018;22:742-751.

PubMed Abstract»

Karch DL, Dong X, Shi J, Hall HI. Trends in Care and Treatment for Persons Aged ≥13 Years with HIV Infection 17 U.S. Jurisdictions, 2012-2015. Open AIDS J. 2018;12:90-105.

PubMed Abstract»

Korthuis PT, Fiellin DA, Fu R, et al. Improving adherence to HIV quality of care indicators in persons with opioid dependence: the role of buprenorphine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;56 Suppl 1:S83-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Meyer JP, Althoff AL, Altice FL. Optimizing care for HIV-infected people who use drugs: evidence-based approaches to overcoming healthcare disparities. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1309-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Lin HY, Willig JH, et al. Missed visits and mortality among patients establishing initial outpatient HIV treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:248-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ. Improving engagement in HIV care: what can we do? Top HIV Med. 2008;16:156-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Nelson JA, Kinder A, Johnson AS, et al. Differences in Selected HIV Care Continuum Outcomes Among People Residing in Rural, Urban, and Metropolitan Areas-28 US Jurisdictions. J Rural Health. 2016 Sep 13.[Eub ahead of print]

PubMed Abstract»

Philbin MM, Feaster DJ, Gooden L, et al. The North-South Divide: Substance Use Risk, Care Engagement, and Viral Suppression Among Hospitalized Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Patients in 11 US Cities. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68:146-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Poteat T, Hanna DB, Rebeiro PF, et al. Characterizing the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Care Continuum Among Transgender Women and Cisgender Women and Men in Clinical Care: A Retrospective Time-series Analysis. Clin Infect Dis. April 23, 2019:1-8.

Clin Infect Dis»

Rebeiro PF, Gange SJ, Horberg MA, et al. Geographic Variations in Retention in Care among HIV-Infected Adults in the United States. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0146119.

PubMed Abstract»

Rumptz MH, Tobias C, Rajabiun S, et al. Factors associated with engaging socially marginalized HIV-positive persons in primary care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21 Suppl 1:S30-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryscavage P, Anderson EJ, Sutton SH, Reddy S, Taiwo B. Clinical outcomes of adolescents and young adults in adult HIV care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:193-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Schranz AJ, Barrett J, Hurt CB, Malvestutto C, Miller WC. Challenges Facing a Rural Opioid Epidemic: Treatment and Prevention of HIV and Hepatitis C. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2018;15:245-254.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson MA, Mugavero MJ, Amico KR, et al. Guidelines for improving entry into and retention in care and antiretroviral adherence for persons with HIV: evidence-based recommendations from an International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care panel. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156:817-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Tripathi A, Youmans E, Gibson JJ, Duffus WA. The impact of retention in early HIV medical care on viro-immunological parameters and survival: a statewide study. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2011;27:751-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ulett KB, Willig JH, Lin HY, et al. The therapeutic implications of timely linkage and early retention in HIV care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:41-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 8. Retention in HIV Care

Impact of Lower Rates of Retention in Care

PubMed Abstract»

Crawford TN. Poor retention in care one-year after viral suppression: a significant predictor of viral rebound. AIDS Care. 2014;26:1393-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Gifford AL, White AC Jr, et al. Retention in care: a challenge to survival with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1493-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Maulsby C, Jain KM, Weir BW, et al. The Cost and Threshold Analysis of Retention in Care (RiC): A Multi-Site National HIV Care Program. AIDS Behav. 2017;21:643-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Metsch LR, Pereyra M, Messinger S, et al. HIV transmission risk behaviors among HIV-infected persons who are successfully linked to care. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:577-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Lin HY, Willig JH, et al. Missed visits and mortality among patients establishing initial outpatient HIV treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:248-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Westfall AO, Cole SR, et al. Beyond Core Indicators of Retention in HIV Care: Missed Clinic Visits Are Independently Associated With All-Cause Mortality. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1471-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Robertson M, Laraque F, Mavronicolas H, Braunstein S, Torian L. Linkage and retention in care and the time to HIV viral suppression and viral rebound - New York City. AIDS Care. 2014;27:260-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Shah M, Risher K, Berry SA, Dowdy DW. The Epidemiologic and Economic Impact of Improving HIV Testing, Linkage, and Retention in Care in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:220-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Skarbinski J, Rosenberg E, Paz-Bailey G, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission at each step of the care continuum in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:588-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 2 » Lesson 8. Retention in HIV Care

Strategies for Improving Retention in HIV Medical Care

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Chen MJ, Parisi MK, et al. Using HIV surveillance registry data to re-link persons to care: the RSVP Project in San Francisco. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0118923.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Data to Care: Using HIV Surveillance Data to Support the HIV Care Continuum

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Data to Care.

CDC»

Cheever LW. Engaging HIV-infected patients in care: their lives depend on it. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1500-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Colasanti J, Sumitani J, Mehta CC, et al. Implementation of a Rapid Entry Program Decreases Time to Viral Suppression Among Vulnerable Persons Living With HIV in the Southern United States. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5:ofy104.

PubMed Abstract»

Dave S, Peter T, Fogarty C, Karatzas N, Belinsky N, Pant Pai N. Which community-based HIV initiatives are effective in achieving UNAIDS 90-90-90 targets? A systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence (2007-2018). PLoS One. 2019;14:e0219826.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Bove J, Roscoe JC, et al. "Out of Care" HIV Case Investigations: A Collaborative Analysis Across 6 States in the Northwest US. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;74 Suppl 2:S81-S87.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Galagan SR, Ramchandani M, et al. HIV Care for Patients With Complex Needs: A Controlled Evaluation of a Walk-In, Incentivized Care Model. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6:ofz294.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Ramchandani M, Dhanireddy S, Harrington RD, Moore A, Golden MR. The Max Clinic: Medical Care Designed to Engage the Hardest-to-Reach Persons Living with HIV in Seattle and King County, Washington. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2018;32:149-156.

PubMed Abstract»

Gardner LI, Giordano TP, Marks G, et al. Enhanced personal contact with HIV patients improves retention in primary care: a randomized trial in 6 US HIV clinics. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:725-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Gardner LI, Metsch LR, Anderson-Mahoney P, et al. Efficacy of a brief case management intervention to link recently diagnosed HIV-infected persons to care. AIDS. 2005;19:423-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Gifford AL, White AC Jr, et al. Retention in care: a challenge to survival with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1493-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Halperin J, Conner K, Butler I, et al. A Care Continuum of Immediate ART for Newly Diagnosed Patients and Patients Presenting Later to Care at a Federally Qualified Health Center in New Orleans. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6:ofz161.

PubMed Abstract»

Harris SK, Samples CL, Keenan PM, Fox DJ, Melchiono MW, Woods ER. Outreach, mental health, and case management services: can they help to retain HIV-positive and at-risk youth and young adults in care? Matern Child Health J. 2003;7:205-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Higa DH, Marks G, Crepaz N, Liau A, Lyles CM. Interventions to improve retention in HIV primary care: a systematic review of U.S. studies. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2012;9:313-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Johnson MO, Neilands TB, Koester KA, et al. Detecting Disengagement From HIV Care Before It Is Too Late: Development and Preliminary Validation of a Novel Index of Engagement in HIV Care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2019;81:145-152.

PubMed Abstract»

Koenig SP, Dorvil N, Dévieux JG, et al. Same-day HIV testing with initiation of antiretroviral therapy versus standard care for persons living with HIV: A randomized unblinded trial. PLoS Med. 2017;14:e1002357.

PubMed Abstract»

Laurence C, Wispelwey E, Flickinger TE, et al. Development of PositiveLinks: A Mobile Phone App to Promote Linkage and Retention in Care for People With HIV. JMIR Form Res. 2019;3:e11578.

PubMed Abstract»

Magnus M, Schmidt N, Kirkhart K, et al. Association between ancillary services and clinical and behavioral outcomes among HIV-infected women. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2001;15:137-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Mateo-Urdiales A, Johnson S, Smith R, Nachega JB, Eshun-Wilson I. Rapid initiation of antiretroviral therapy for people living with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;6:CD012962.

PubMed Abstract»

Metsch LR, Pereyra M, Messinger S, et al. HIV transmission risk behaviors among HIV-infected persons who are successfully linked to care. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:577-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ, Davila JA, Nevin CR, Giordano TP. From access to engagement: measuring retention in outpatient HIV clinical care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2010;24:607-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Willis S, Castel AD, Ahmed T, Olejemeh C, Frison L, Kharfen M. Linkage, engagement, and viral suppression rates among HIV-infected persons receiving care at medical case management programs in Washington, DC. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;64 Suppl 1:S33-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

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PubMed Abstract»

Adamson B, El-Sadr W, Dimitrov D, et al. The Cost-Effectiveness of Financial Incentives for Viral Suppression: HPTN 065 Study. Value Health. 2019;22:194-202.

PubMed Abstract»

Blair JM, McNaghten AD, Frazier EL, Skarbinski J, Huang P, Heffelfinger JD. Clinical and behavioral characteristics of adults receiving medical care for HIV infection --- Medical Monitoring Project, United States, 2007. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2011;60:1-20.

MMWR»

Booth RE, Kwiatkowski CF, Weissman G. Health-related service utilization and HIV risk behaviors among HIV infected injection drug users and crack smokers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999;55:69-78.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradley H, Hall HI, Wolitski RJ, et al. Vital Signs: HIV diagnosis, care, and treatment among persons living with HIV--United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:1113-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Cabral HJ, Tobias C, Rajabiun S, et al. Outreach program contacts: do they increase the likelihood of engagement and retention in HIV primary care for hard-to-reach patients? AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21 Suppl 1:S59-67.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

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CDC»

Cheever LW. Engaging HIV-infected patients in care: their lives depend on it. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1500-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Simoni JM, Katz DA, Golden MR. Barriers to HIV Care and Treatment Among Participants in a Public Health HIV Care Relinkage Program. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:279-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Elopre L, Hook EW, Westfall AO, et al. The Role of Early HIV Status Disclosure in Retention in HIV Care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:646-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Gant Z, Bradley H, Hu X, Skarbinski J, Hall HI, Lansky A. Hispanics or Latinos living with diagnosed HIV: progress along the continuum of HIV care - United States, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:886-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Gardner LI, Marks G, Shahani L, et al. Assessing efficacy of a retention-in-care intervention among HIV patients with depression, anxiety, heavy alcohol consumption and illicit drug use. AIDS. 2016;30:1111-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Gardner LI, Metsch LR, Anderson-Mahoney P, et al. Efficacy of a brief case management intervention to link recently diagnosed HIV-infected persons to care. AIDS. 2005;19:423-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Geldsetzer P, Yapa HM, Vaikath M, et al. A systematic review of interventions to improve postpartum retention of women in PMTCT and ART care. J Int AIDS Soc. 2016;19:20679.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Cully J, Amico KR, et al. A Randomized Trial to Test a Peer Mentor Intervention to Improve Outcomes in Persons Hospitalized With HIV Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:678-686.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP. Retention in HIV care: what the clinician needs to know. Top Antivir Med. 2011;19:12-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Greer GA, Tamhane A, Malhotra R, et al. Achieving Core Indicators for HIV Clinical Care Among New Patients at an Urban HIV Clinic. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:474-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Halperin J, Bean MC, Richey LE. Laboratory markers slightly overestimate retention in HIV care among newly diagnosed individuals. AIDS Care. 2016;28:1188-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Higa DH, Crepaz N, Mullins MM, et al. Strategies to improve HIV care outcomes for people with HIV who are out of care: a meta-analysis. AIDS. 2022;36:853-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Jacks A, Wainwright DA, Salazar L, et al. Neurocognitive deficits increase risk of poor retention in care among older adults with newly diagnosed HIV infection. AIDS. 2015;29:1711-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Jain KM, Maulsby C, Brantley M, et al. Cost and cost threshold analyses for 12 innovative US HIV linkage and retention in care programs. AIDS Care. 2016;28:1199-204.

PubMed Abstract»

Karch DL, Dong X, Shi J, Hall HI. Trends in Care and Treatment for Persons Aged ≥13 Years with HIV Infection 17 U.S. Jurisdictions, 2012-2015. Open AIDS J. 2018;12:90-105.

PubMed Abstract»

Kay ES, Batey DS, Mugavero MJ. The HIV treatment cascade and care continuum: updates, goals, and recommendations for the future. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:35.

PubMed Abstract»

Latkin CA, Forman-Hoffman VL, D'Souza G, Knowlton AR. Associations between medical service use and HIV risk among HIV-positive drug users in Baltimore, MD. AIDS Care. 2004;16:901-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Lonergan JT, McComsey GA, Fisher RL, et al. Lack of Recurrence of hyperlactatemia in HIV-Infected patients switched from stavudine to abacavir or zidovudine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;36:935-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Losina E, Schackman BR, Sadownik SN, et al. Racial and sex disparities in life expectancy losses among HIV-infected persons in the United States: impact of risk behavior, late initiation, and early discontinuation of antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1570-8.

PubMed Abstract»

McComsey GA, Ward DJ, Hessenthaler SM, et al. Improvement in lipoatrophy associated with highly active antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients switched from stavudine to abacavir or zidovudine: the results of the TARHEEL study. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:263-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Minick SG, May SB, Amico KR, et al. Participants' perspectives on improving retention in HIV care after hospitalization: A post-study qualitative investigation of the MAPPS study. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0202917.

PubMed Abstract»

Monroe AK, Lau B, Mugavero MJ, et al. Heavy Alcohol Use Is Associated With Worse Retention in HIV Care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;73:419-425.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugavero MJ. Improving engagement in HIV care: what can we do? Top HIV Med. 2008;16:156-61.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pape JW, Verdier RI, Johnson WD Jr. Treatment and prophylaxis of Isospora belli infection in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1044-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Rebchook G, Keatley J, Contreras R, et al. The Transgender Women of Color Initiative: Implementing and Evaluating Innovative Interventions to Enhance Engagement and Retention in HIV Care. Am J Public Health. 2017;107:224-229.

PubMed Abstract»

Remien RH, Stirratt MJ, Nguyen N, Robbins RN, Pala AN, Mellins CA. Mental health and HIV/AIDS: the need for an integrated response. AIDS. 2019;33:1411-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Rotheram-Borus MJ. Strategies to improve HIV care outcomes for people with HIV who are out of care: the need for well designed health systems. AIDS. 2022;36:899-900.

PubMed Abstract»

Sacktor N, Skolasky RL, Seaberg E, et al. Prevalence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Neurology. 2016;86:334-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Sauceda JA, Lisha NE, Ludwig-Barron N, et al. The Brief HIV Index: A rapid 3-item scale to measure engagement in HIV care. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 Apr 5. Online ahead of print

PubMed Abstract»

Shah M, Perry A, Risher K, et al. Effect of the US National HIV/AIDS Strategy targets for improved HIV care engagement: a modelling study. Lancet HIV. 2016;3:e140-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Shrestha RK, Gardner L, Marks G, et al. Estimating the cost of increasing retention in care for HIV-infected patients: results of the CDC/HRSA retention in care trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:345-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Skarbinski J, Rosenberg E, Paz-Bailey G, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission at each step of the care continuum in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:588-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Sweeney P, Hoyte T, Mulatu MS, et al. Implementing a Data to Care Strategy to Improve Health Outcomes for People With HIV: A Report From the Care and Prevention in the United States Demonstration Project. Public Health Rep. 2018;133:60S-74S.

PubMed Abstract»

The White House. 2021. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States 2022–2025. Washington, DC

The White House: Washington»

Ulett KB, Willig JH, Lin HY, et al. The therapeutic implications of timely linkage and early retention in HIV care. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:41-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Walburn A, Swindells S, Fisher C, High R, Islam KM. Missed visits and decline in CD4 cell count among HIV-infected patients: a mixed method study. Int J Infect Dis. 2012;16:e779-85.

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

Whiteside YO, Cohen SM, Bradley H, Skarbinski J, Hall HI, Lansky A. Progress along the continuum of HIV care among blacks with diagnosed HIV- United States, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:85-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Xiao H, Mains W. Relationship between Housing Status and Retention Rates among HIV-Positive African Americans Enrolled in a Comprehensive Care Program. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2016;48:109-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Zuniga JA, Yoo-Jeong M, Dai T, Guo Y, Waldrop-Valverde D. The Role of Depression in Retention in Care for Persons Living with HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2016;30:34-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3. Antiretroviral Therapy

Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

What Not to Use

HIV.gov»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

Background

Arts EJ, Hazuda DJ. HIV-1 antiretroviral drug therapy. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2:a007161.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Gandhi M, Gandhi RT. Single-pill combination regimens for treatment of HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:248-59.

PubMed Abstract»

INSIGHT START Study Group, Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, Gordin F, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:795-807.

PubMed Abstract»

Kitahata MM, Gange SJ, Abraham AG, et al. Effect of early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy for HIV on survival. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1815-26.

PubMed Abstract»

McNairy ML, El-Sadr WM. Antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of HIV transmission: what will it take? Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1003-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

HIV Life Cycle and Antiretroviral Drug Targets

HIVMA»

Adamson CS, Jones IM. The molecular basis of HIV capsid assembly--five years of progress. Rev Med Virol. 2004;14:107-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Adamson CS. Protease-Mediated Maturation of HIV: Inhibitors of Protease and the Maturation Process. Mol Biol Int. 2012;2012:604261.

PubMed Abstract»

Aiken C, Rousso I. The HIV-1 capsid and reverse transcription. Retrovirology. 2021;18:29.

PubMed Abstract»

AlBurtamani N, Paul A, Fassati A. The Role of Capsid in the Early Steps of HIV-1 Infection: New Insights into the Core of the Matter. Viruses. 2021;13:1161.

PubMed Abstract»

Bester SM, Adu-Ampratwum D, Annamalai AS, et al. Structural and Mechanistic Bases of Viral Resistance to HIV-1 Capsid Inhibitor Lenacapavir. mBio. 2022;13:e0180422.

PubMed Abstract»

Bester SM, Wei G, Zhao H, et al. Structural and mechanistic bases for a potent HIV-1 capsid inhibitor. Science. 2020;370:360-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Bettiker RL, Koren DE, Jacobson JM. Ibalizumab. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:354-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Briggs JA, Simon MN, Gross I, et al. The stoichiometry of Gag protein in HIV-1. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2004;11:672-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Fink V, Patterson P. Fostemsavir: a new CD4 attachment inhibitor. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:341-345.

PubMed Abstract»

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PubMed Abstract»

Chan DC, Fass D, Berger JM, Kim PS. Core structure of gp41 from the HIV envelope glycoprotein. Cell. 1997;89:263-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Clavel F, Hance AJ. HIV drug resistance. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1023-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Craigie R. HIV integrase, a brief overview from chemistry to therapeutics. J Biol Chem. 2001;276:23213-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG, Wrin T, Liegler T, et al. Virologic and immunologic consequences of discontinuing combination antiretroviral-drug therapy in HIV-infected patients with detectable viremia. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:472-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Deval J. Antimicrobial strategies: inhibition of viral polymerases by 3'-hydroxyl nucleosides. Drugs. 2009;69:151-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Engelman A, Cherepanov P. Retroviral Integrase Structure and DNA Recombination Mechanism. Microbiol Spectr. 2014;2(6).

PubMed Abstract»

Esté JA, Telenti A. HIV entry inhibitors. Lancet. 2007;370:81-8.

PubMed Abstract»

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PubMed Abstract»

Freed EO. HIV-1 assembly, release and maturation. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2015;13:484-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Grandgenett DP, Pandey KK, Bera S, Aihara H. Multifunctional facets of retrovirus integrase. World J Biol Chem. 2015;6:83-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Gras L, Kesselring AM, Griffin JT, et al. CD4 cell counts of 800 cells/mm3 or greater after 7 years of highly active antiretroviral therapy are feasible in most patients starting with 350 cells/mm3 or greater. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:183-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Haqqani AA, Tilton JC. Entry inhibitors and their use in the treatment of HIV-1 infection. Antiviral Res. 2013;98:158-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Hazuda DJ. HIV integrase as a target for antiretroviral therapy. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:383-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Henrich TJ, Kuritzkes DR. HIV-1 entry inhibitors: recent development and clinical use. Curr Opin Virol. 2013;3:51-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Hu WS, Hughes SH. HIV-1 reverse transcription. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2:a006882.

PubMed Abstract»

Iacob SA, Iacob DG. Ibalizumab Targeting CD4 Receptors, An Emerging Molecule in HIV Therapy. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:2323.

PubMed Abstract»

Ingale KB, Bhatia MS. HIV-1 integrase inhibitors: a review of their chemical development. Antivir Chem Chemother. 2011;22:95-105.

PubMed Abstract»

Kilby JM, Eron JJ. Novel therapies based on mechanisms of HIV-1 cell entry. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2228-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Klasse PJ. The molecular basis of HIV entry. Cell Microbiol. 2012;14:1183-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Kozal M, Aberg J, Pialoux G, et al. Fostemsavir in Adults with Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1232-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Lataillade M, Kozal MJ. The hunt for HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2006;20:489-501.

PubMed Abstract»

McFadden WM, Snyder AA, Kirby KA, et al. Rotten to the core: antivirals targeting the HIV-1 capsid core. Retrovirology. 2021;18:41.

PubMed Abstract»

Montero M, van Houten NE, Wang X, Scott JK. The membrane-proximal external region of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope: dominant site of antibody neutralization and target for vaccine design. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2008;72:54-84.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: poor CD4 cell recovery and persistent inflammation despite viral suppression. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Pöhlmann S, Reeves JD. Cellular entry of HIV: Evaluation of therapeutic targets. Curr Pharm Des. 2006;12:1963-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Pommier Y, Johnson AA, Marchand C. Integrase inhibitors to treat HIV/AIDS. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2005;4:236-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Sarafianos SG, Marchand B, Das K, et al. Structure and function of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase: molecular mechanisms of polymerization and inhibition. J Mol Biol. 2009;385:693-713.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Pozniak A, Montes ML, et al. Coformulated bictegravir, emtricitabine, and tenofovir alafenamide versus dolutegravir with emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide, for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection (GS-US-380-1490): a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2017;390:2073-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Schauer G, Leuba S, Sluis-Cremer N. Biophysical Insights into the Inhibitory Mechanism of Non-Nucleoside HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors. Biomolecules. 2013;3:889-904.

PubMed Abstract»

Schiller J, Chackerian B. Why HIV virions have low numbers of envelope spikes: implications for vaccine development. PLoS Pathog. 2014;10:e1004254.

PubMed Abstract»

Selyutina A, Hu P, Miller S, et al. GS-CA1 and lenacapavir stabilize the HIV-1 core and modulate the core interaction with cellular factors. iScience. 2022 ;25:103593.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh K, Marchand B, Kirby KA, Michailidis E, Sarafianos SG. Structural Aspects of Drug Resistance and Inhibition of HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase. Viruses. 2010;2:606-638.

PubMed Abstract»

Tilton JC, Doms RW. Entry inhibitors in the treatment of HIV-1 infection. Antiviral Res. 2010;85:91-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Vandegraaff N, Engelman A. Molecular mechanisms of HIV integration and therapeutic intervention. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2007;9:1-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilen CB, Tilton JC, Doms RW. HIV: cell binding and entry. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2:a006866.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilkin TJ, Gulick RM. CCR5 antagonism in HIV infection: current concepts and future opportunities. Annu Rev Med. 2012;63:81-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Yi HA, Fochtman BC, Rizzo RC, Jacobs A. Inhibition of HIV Entry by Targeting the Envelope Transmembrane Subunit gp41. Curr HIV Res. 2016;14:283-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Zhu P, Liu J, Bess J Jr, et al. Distribution and three-dimensional structure of AIDS virus envelope spikes. Nature. 2006;441:847-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

When to Initiate Antiretroviral Therapy

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1173-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Egger M, May M, Chêne G, et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:119-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Gonzalo-Gil E, Ikediobi U, Sutton RE. Mechanisms of Virologic Control and Clinical Characteristics of HIV+ Elite/Viremic Controllers. Yale J Biol Med. 2017;90:245-259.

PubMed Abstract»

Grabar S, Selinger-Leneman H, Abgrall S, Pialoux G, Weiss L, Costagliola D. Loss of long-term non-progressor and HIV controller status over time in the French Hospital Database on HIV - ANRS CO4. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0184441.

PubMed Abstract»

INSIGHT START Study Group, Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, Gordin F, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:795-807.

PubMed Abstract»

Kitahata MM, Gange SJ, Abraham AG, et al. Effect of early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy for HIV on survival. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1815-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Okulicz JF, Marconi VC, Landrum ML, et al. Clinical outcomes of elite controllers, viremic controllers, and long-term nonprogressors in the US Department of Defense HIV natural history study. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:1714-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Opravil M, Ledergerber B, Furrer H, et al. Clinical efficacy of early initiation of HAART in patients with asymptomatic HIV infection and CD4 cell count > 350 x 10(6)/l. AIDS. 2002;16:1371-81.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pereyra F, Lo J, Triant VA, et al. Increased coronary atherosclerosis and immune activation in HIV-1 elite controllers. AIDS. 2012;26:2409-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Severe P, Juste MA, Ambroise A, et al. Early versus standard antiretroviral therapy for HIV-infected adults in Haiti. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:257-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegfried N, van der Merwe L, Brocklehurst P, Sint TT. Antiretrovirals for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;:CD003510.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterling TR, Chaisson RE, Keruly J, Moore RD. Improved outcomes with earlier initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients who achieve durable virologic suppression: longer follow-up of an observational cohort study. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:1659-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterne JA, May M, Costagliola D, et al. Timing of initiation of antiretroviral therapy in AIDS-free HIV-1-infected patients: a collaborative analysis of 18 HIV cohort studies. Lancet. 2009;373:1352-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

Antiretroviral Regimens for Initial Therapy

HIVMA»

Adamson CS, Jones IM. The molecular basis of HIV capsid assembly--five years of progress. Rev Med Virol. 2004;14:107-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Arribas JR, Girard PM, Landman R, et al. Dual treatment with lopinavir-ritonavir plus lamivudine versus triple treatment with lopinavir-ritonavir plus lamivudine or emtricitabine and a second nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitor for maintenance of HIV-1 viral suppression (OLE): a randomised, open-label, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Madero JS, Arribas JR, et al. Dolutegravir plus lamivudine versus dolutegravir plus tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine in antiretroviral-naive adults with HIV-1 infection (GEMINI-1 and GEMINI-2): week 48 results from two multicentre, double-blind, randomised, non-inferiority, phase 3 trials. Lancet. 2019;393:143-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Rolón MJ, Figueroa MI, Gun A, Patterson P, Sued O. Dolutegravir-lamivudine as initial therapy in HIV-1 infected, ARV-naive patients, 48-week results of the PADDLE (Pilot Antiretroviral Design with Dolutegravir LamivudinE) study. J Int AIDS Soc. 2017;20:21678.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 6. What to start: initial antiretroviral regimens during pregnancy for people who are antiretroviral-naive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 7. Situation-specific recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant people and nonpregnant people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Pulido F, Ribera E, Lagarde M, et al. Dual Therapy With Darunavir and Ritonavir Plus Lamivudine vs Triple Therapy With Darunavir and Ritonavir Plus Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate and Emtricitabine or Abacavir and Lamivudine for Maintenance of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Viral Suppression: Randomized, Open-Label, Noninferiority DUAL-GESIDA 8014-RIS-EST45 Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:2112-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Raffi F, Babiker AG, Richert L, et al. Ritonavir-boosted darunavir combined with raltegravir or tenofovir-emtricitabine in antiretroviral-naive adults infected with HIV-1: 96 week results from the NEAT001/ANRS143 randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2014;384:1942-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Makhema J, Shapiro RL. Neural-Tube Defects with Dolutegravir Treatment from the Time of Conception. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:979-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

Choosing a Specific Antiretroviral Regimen

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen CJ, Andrade-Villanueva J, et al. Rilpivirine versus efavirenz with two background nucleoside or nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors in treatment-naive adults infected with HIV-1 (THRIVE): a phase 3, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2011;378:229-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen CJ, Molina JM, Cahn P, et al. Efficacy and safety of rilpivirine (TMC278) versus efavirenz at 48 weeks in treatment-naive HIV-1-infected patients: pooled results from the phase 3 double-blind randomized ECHO and THRIVE Trials. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;60:33-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Lennox JL, Landovitz RJ, Ribaudo HJ, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of 3 nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-sparing antiretroviral regimens for treatment-naive volunteers infected with HIV-1: a randomized, controlled equivalence trial. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161:461-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Cahn P, Grinsztejn B, et al. Rilpivirine versus efavirenz with tenofovir and emtricitabine in treatment-naive adults infected with HIV-1 (ECHO): a phase 3 randomised double-blind active-controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;378:238-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, DeJesus E, Khanlou H, et al. Final 192-week efficacy and safety of once-daily darunavir/ritonavir compared with lopinavir/ritonavir in HIV-1-infected treatment-naïve patients in the ARTEMIS trial. HIV Med. 2013;14:49-59.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: Table 7. Antiretroviral Regimen Considerations for Initial Therapy Based on Specific Clinical Scenarios. September 21, 2022..

HIV.gov»

Post FA, Moyle GJ, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Randomized comparison of renal effects, efficacy, and safety with once-daily abacavir/lamivudine versus tenofovir/emtricitabine, administered with efavirenz, in antiretroviral-naive, HIV-1-infected adults: 48-week results from the ASSERT study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55:49-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Raffi F, Rachlis A, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Once-daily dolutegravir versus raltegravir in antiretroviral-naive adults with HIV-1 infection: 48 week results from the randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority SPRING-2 study. Lancet. 2013;381:735-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Tierney C, Collier AC, et al. Abacavir-lamivudine versus tenofovir-emtricitabine for initial HIV-1 therapy. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2230-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Tierney C, Collier AC, et al. Abacavir/lamivudine versus tenofovir DF/emtricitabine as part of combination regimens for initial treatment of HIV: final results. J Infect Dis. 2011;204:1191-201.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith KY, Patel P, Fine D, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-matched, multicenter trial of abacavir/lamivudine or tenofovir/emtricitabine with lopinavir/ritonavir for initial HIV treatment. AIDS. 2009;23:1547-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

Monitoring Response to Antiretroviral Therapy

Clotet B, Feinberg J, van Lunzen J, et al. Once-daily dolutegravir versus darunavir plus ritonavir in antiretroviral-naive adults with HIV-1 infection (FLAMINGO): 48 week results from the randomised open-label phase 3b study. Lancet. 2014;383:2222-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaufmann GR, Perrin L, Pantaleo G, et al. CD4 T-lymphocyte recovery in individuals with advanced HIV-1 infection receiving potent antiretroviral therapy for 4 years: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:2187-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Lennox JL, Dejesus E, Lazzarin A, et al. Safety and efficacy of raltegravir-based versus efavirenz-based combination therapy in treatment-naive patients with HIV-1 infection: a multicentre, double-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374(9692):796-806.

PubMed Abstract»

Moore RD, Keruly JC. CD4+ cell count 6 years after commencement of highly active antiretroviral therapy in persons with sustained virologic suppression. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:441-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: plasma HIV-1 RNA (viral load) and CD4 count monitoring. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

Poor CD4 Response to Antiretroviral Therapy

Adamson CS, Jones IM. The molecular basis of HIV capsid assembly--five years of progress. Rev Med Virol. 2004;14:107-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Bartlett JA, Fath MJ, Demasi R, Hermes A, Quinn J, Mondou E, Rousseau F. An updated systematic overview of triple combination therapy in antiretroviral-naive HIV-infected adults. AIDS. 2006;20:2051-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Battegay M, Nüesch R, Hirschel B, Kaufmann GR. Immunological recovery and antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infection. Lancet Infect Dis. 2006;6:280-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Egger M, Hirschel B, Francioli P, et al. Impact of new antiretroviral combination therapies in HIV infected patients in Switzerland: prospective multicentre study. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. BMJ. 1997;315:1194-9.

PubMed Abstract»

INSIGHT-ESPRIT Study Group; SILCAAT Scientific Committee, Abrams D, et al. Interleukin-2 therapy in patients with HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:1548-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Karrer U, Ledergerber B, Furrer H, et al. Dose-dependent influence of didanosine on immune recovery in HIV-infected patients treated with tenofovir. AIDS. 2005;19:1987-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Kazanjian P, Wei W, Brown M, Gandhi T, Amin K. Viral load responses to HAART is an independent predictor of a new AIDS event in late stage HIV infected patients: prospective cohort study. J Transl Med. 2005;3:40.

PubMed Abstract»

Kelley CF, Kitchen CM, Hunt PW, Rodriguez B, Hecht FM, Kitahata M, Crane HM, Willig J, Mugavero M, Saag M, Martin JN, Deeks SG. Incomplete peripheral CD4+ cell count restoration in HIV-infected patients receiving long-term antiretroviral treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:787-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Luz PM, Grinsztejn B, Velasque L, et al. Long-term CD4+ cell count in response to combination antiretroviral therapy. PLoS One. 2014;9:e93039.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: poor CD4 cell recovery and persistent inflammation despite viral suppression. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Walmsley SL, Antela A, Clumeck N, et al. Dolutegravir plus abacavir-lamivudine for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1807-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Zoufaly A, an der Heiden M, Kollan C, Bogner JR, et al. Clinical outcome of HIV-infected patients with discordant virological and immunological response to antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:364-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 1. Antiretroviral Medications and Initial Therapy

Discontinuation or Treatment Interruption

Holkmann Olsen C, Mocroft A, Kirk O, et al. Interruption of combination antiretroviral therapy and risk of clinical disease progression to AIDS or death. HIV Med. 2007;8:96-104.

PubMed Abstract»

Kousignian I, Abgrall S, Grabar S, et al. Maintaining antiretroviral therapy reduces the risk of AIDS-defining events in patients with uncontrolled viral replication and profound immunodeficiency. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:296-304.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Phillips AN, Carr A, Neuhaus J, et al. Interruption of antiretroviral therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease in persons with HIV-1 infection: exploratory analyses from the SMART trial. Antivir Ther. 2008;13:177-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Bell NM, Lever AM. HIV Gag polyprotein: processing and early viral particle assembly. Trends Microbiol. 2013;21:136-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Blumenthal R, Durell S, Viard M. HIV entry and envelope glycoprotein-mediated fusion. J Biol Chem. 2012;287:40841-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

De Feo CJ, Weiss CD. Escape from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) entry inhibitors. Viruses. 2012;4:3859-911.

PubMed Abstract»

INSIGHT START Study Group, Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, Gordin F, et al. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Asymptomatic HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:795-807.

PubMed Abstract»

Kitahata MM, Gange SJ, Abraham AG, et al. Effect of early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy for HIV on survival. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1815-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Li X, Krishnan L, Cherepanov P, Engelman A. Structural biology of retroviral DNA integration. Virology. 2011;411:194-205.

PubMed Abstract»

McNairy ML, El-Sadr WM. Antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of HIV transmission: what will it take? Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1003-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Miro JM, Lopez JC, Podzamczer D, et al. Discontinuation of primary and secondary Toxoplasma gondii prophylaxis is safe in HIV-infected patients after immunological restoration with highly active antiretroviral therapy: results of an open, randomized, multicenter clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:79-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Mocroft A, Phillips AN, Gatell J, et al. Normalisation of CD4 counts in patients with HIV-1 infection and maximum virological suppression who are taking combination antiretroviral therapy: an observational cohort study. Lancet. 2007;370:407-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Palella FJ Jr, Fisher M, Tebas P, et al. Simplification to rilpivirine/emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate from ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor antiretroviral therapy in a randomized trial of HIV-1 RNA-suppressed participants. AIDS. 2014;28:335-44.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Perelson AS, Essunger P, Cao Y, et al. Decay characteristics of HIV-1 infected compartments during combination therapy. Nature. 1997;387:188-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

Sluis-Cremer N, Tachedjian G. Mechanisms of inhibition of HIV replication by non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Virus Res. 2008;134:147-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Soriano V, Dona C, Rodriguez-Rosado R, Barreiro P, Gonzalez-Lahoz J. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2000;14:383-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group, Emery S, Neuhaus JA, et al. Major clinical outcomes in antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive participants and in those not receiving ART at baseline in the SMART study. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:1133-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Tronchet JM, Seman M. Nonnucleoside inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase: from the biology of reverse transcription to molecular design. Curr Top Med Chem. 2003;3:1496-511.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Introduction

Fernandez-Montero JV, Eugenia E, Barreiro P, Labarga P, Soriano V. Antiretroviral drug-related toxicities - clinical spectrum, prevention, and management. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2013;12:697-707.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Limitations to treatment safety and efficacy: adverse effects of antiretroviral agents. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for the antiretroviral-naïve patient. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Entry Inhibitors

Ayoub A, Alston S, Goodrich J, et al. Hepatic safety and tolerability in the maraviroc clinical development program. AIDS. 2010;24:2743-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Fink V, Patterson P. Fostemsavir: a new CD4 attachment inhibitor. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:341-345.

PubMed Abstract»

Emu B, Fessel J, Schrader S, et al. Phase 3 Study of Ibalizumab for Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:645-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Glass WG, McDermott DH, Lim JK, et al. CCR5 deficiency increases risk of symptomatic West Nile virus infection. J Exp Med. 2006;203:35-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Hardy WD, Gulick RM, Mayer H, et al. Two-year safety and virologic efficacy of maraviroc in treatment-experienced patients with CCR5-tropic HIV-1 infection: 96-week combined analysis of MOTIVATE 1 and 2. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55:558-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Kozal M, Aberg J, Pialoux G, et al. Fostemsavir in Adults with Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1232-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Lagishetty C, Moore K, Ackerman P, Llamoso C, Magee M. Effects of Temsavir, Active Moiety of Antiretroviral Agent Fostemsavir, on QT Interval: Results From a Phase I Study and an Exposure-Response Analysis. Clin Transl Sci. 2020;13:769-776.

PubMed Abstract»

Lim JK, McDermott DH, Lisco A, et al. CCR5 deficiency is a risk factor for early clinical manifestations of West Nile virus infection but not for viral transmission. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:178-85.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rockstroh JK, Plonski F, Bansal M, et al. Hepatic safety of maraviroc in patients with HIV-1 and hepatitis C and/or B virus: 144-week results from a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Antivir Ther. 2017;22:263-269.

PubMed Abstract»

Sierra-Madero J, Di Perri G, Wood R, et al. Efficacy and safety of maraviroc versus efavirenz, both with zidovudine/lamivudine: 96-week results from the MERIT study. HIV Clin Trials. 2010;11:125-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Wasmuth JC, Rockstroh JK, Hardy WD. Drug safety evaluation of maraviroc for the treatment of HIV infection. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2012;11:161-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors

Bakal DR, Coelho LE, Luz PM, et al. Obesity following ART initiation is common and influenced by both traditional and HIV-/ART-specific risk factors. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73:2177-2185.

PubMed Abstract»

Bourgi K, Jenkins CA, Rebeiro PF, et al. Weight gain among treatment-naïve persons with HIV starting integrase inhibitors compared to non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors or protease inhibitors in a large observational cohort in the United States and Canada. J Int AIDS Soc. 2020;23:e25484.

PubMed Abstract»

Bourgi K, Rebeiro PF, Turner M, et al. Greater Weight Gain in Treatment-naive Persons Starting Dolutegravir-based Antiretroviral Therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70:1267-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Croce F, Vitello P, Dalla Pria A, Riva A, Galli M, Antinori S. Severe raltegravir-associated rhabdomyolysis: a case report and review of the literature. Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21:783-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Curtis L, Nichols G, Stainsby C, et al. Dolutegravir: clinical and laboratory safety in integrase inhibitor-naive patients. HIV Clin Trials. 2014;15:199-208.

PubMed Abstract»

D'Abbraccio M, Busto A, De Marco M, Figoni M, Maddaloni A, Abrescia N. Efficacy and Tolerability of Integrase Inhibitors in Antiretroviral-Naive Patients. AIDS Rev. 2015;17:171-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Daar ES, DeJesus E, Ruane P, et al. Efficacy and safety of switching to fixed-dose bictegravir, emtricitabine, and tenofovir alafenamide from boosted protease inhibitor-based regimens in virologically suppressed adults with HIV-1: 48 week results of a randomised, open-label, multicentre, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e347-e356.

PubMed Abstract»

DeJesus E, Rockstroh JK, Henry K, et al. Co-formulated elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus ritonavir-boosted atazanavir plus co-formulated emtricitabine and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection: a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2012;379:2429-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernandez-Montero JV, Eugenia E, Barreiro P, Labarga P, Soriano V. Antiretroviral drug-related toxicities - clinical spectrum, prevention, and management. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2013;12:697-707.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant J, Lazzarin A, Mills A, et al. Bictegravir, emtricitabine, and tenofovir alafenamide versus dolutegravir, abacavir, and lamivudine for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection (GS-US-380-1489): a double-blind, multicentre, phase 3, randomised controlled non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2017;390:2063-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Gutierrez Mdel M, Mateo MG, Vidal F, Domingo P. Drug safety profile of integrase strand transfer inhibitors. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2014;13:431-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Harris M, Larsen G, Montaner JS. Exacerbation of depression associated with starting raltegravir: a report of four cases. AIDS. 2008;22:1890-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Kheloufi F, Allemand J, Mokhtari S, Default A. Psychiatric disorders after starting dolutegravir: report of four cases. AIDS. 2015;29:1723-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee FJ, Amin J, Bloch M, Pett SL, Marriott D, Carr A. Skeletal muscle toxicity associated with raltegravir-based combination antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adults. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:525-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Loulergue P, Mir O. Raltegravir-induced DRESS syndrome. Scand J Infect Dis. 2012;44:802-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Lucas GM, Ross MJ, Stock PG, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of chronic kidney disease in patients infected with HIV: 2014 update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:e96-138.

PubMed Abstract»

Mallon PW, Brunet L, Hsu RK, et al. Weight gain before and after switch from TDF to TAF in a U.S. cohort study. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021;24:e25702.

PubMed Abstract»

Menard A, Meddeb L, Tissot-Dupont H, et al. Dolutegravir and weight gain: an unexpected bothering side effect? AIDS. 2017;31:1499-1500.

PubMed Abstract»

Norwood J, Turner M, Bofill C, et al. Brief Report: Weight Gain in Persons With HIV Switched From Efavirenz-Based to Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor-Based Regimens. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;76:527-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Arasteh K, Górgolas Hernández-Mora M, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine after Oral Induction for HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1124-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Osterholzer DA, Goldman M. Dolutegravir: a next-generation integrase inhibitor for treatment of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:265-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Limitations to treatment safety and efficacy: adverse effects of antiretroviral agents. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Ripamonti D, Benatti SV, Di Filippo E, Ravasio V, Rizzi M. Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms associated with raltegravir use: case report and review of the literature. AIDS. 2014;28:1077-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, DeJesus E, Mills A, et al. Co-formulated elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir versus co-formulated efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection: a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial, analysis of results after 48 weeks. Lancet. 2012;379:2439-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Erlandson KM, Lake JE, et al. Weight Gain Following Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy: Risk Factors in Randomized Comparative Clinical Trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:1379-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Andrade-Villanueva JF, Richmond GJ, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine for Maintenance of HIV-1 Suppression. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1112-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Thomas M, Hopkins C, Duffy E, et al. Association of the HLA-B*53:01 Allele With Drug Reaction With Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms (DRESS) Syndrome During Treatment of HIV Infection With Raltegravir. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:1198-1203.

PubMed Abstract»

Venter WDF, Moorhouse M, Sokhela S, et al. Dolutegravir plus Two Different Prodrugs of Tenofovir to Treat HIV. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:803-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Walmsley SL, Antela A, Clumeck N, et al. Dolutegravir plus abacavir-lamivudine for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1807-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Wohl D, Clarke A, Maggiolo F, et al. Patient-Reported Symptoms Over 48 Weeks Among Participants in Randomized, Double-Blind, Phase III Non-inferiority Trials of Adults with HIV on Co-formulated Bictegravir, Emtricitabine, and Tenofovir Alafenamide versus Co-formulated Abacavir, Dolutegravir, and Lamivudine. Patient. 2018;11:561-573.

PubMed Abstract»

Wyatt CM. Antiretroviral therapy and the kidney. Top Antivir Med. 2014;22:655-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Ghanem KG, Emmanuel P, Zingman BS, Horberg MA. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with HIV: 2013 update by the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Abers MS, Shandera WX, Kass JS. Neurological and psychiatric adverse effects of antiretroviral drugs. CNS Drugs. 2014;28:131-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Arenas-Pinto A, Bhaskaran K, Dunn D, Weller IV. The risk of developing peripheral neuropathy induced by nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors decreases over time: evidence from the Delta trial. Antivir Ther. 2008;13:289-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Babusis D, Phan TK, Lee WA, Watkins WJ, Ray AS. Mechanism for effective lymphoid cell and tissue loading following oral administration of nucleotide prodrug GS-7340. Mol Pharm. 2013;10:459-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Baum PD, Sullam PM, Stoddart CA, McCune JM. Abacavir increases platelet reactivity via competitive inhibition of soluble guanylyl cyclase. AIDS. 2011;25:2243-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Birkus G, Wang R, Liu X, et al. Cathepsin A is the major hydrolase catalyzing the intracellular hydrolysis of the antiretroviral nucleotide phosphonoamidate prodrugs GS-7340 and GS-9131. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51:543-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Boyd MA, Truman M, Hales G, Anderson J, Dwyer DE, Carr A. A randomized study to evaluate injection site reactions using three different enfuvirtide delivery mechanisms (the OPTIONS study). Antivir Ther. 2008;13:449-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Brinkman K, Kakuda TN. Mitochondrial toxicity of nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors: a looming obstacle for long-term antiretroviral therapy? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2000;13:5-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Brinkman K, ter Hofstede HJ, Burger DM, Smeitink JA, Koopmans PP. Adverse effects of reverse transcriptase inhibitors: mitochondrial toxicity as common pathway. AIDS. 1998;12:1735-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, Glesby MJ. Management of the metabolic effects of HIV and HIV drugs. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2011;8:11-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Carr A, Workman C, Smith DE, et al. Abacavir substitution for nucleoside analogs in patients with HIV lipoatrophy: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2002;288:207-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Carr A. Lactic acidemia in infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:S96-S100.

PubMed Abstract»

Cassetti I, Madruga JV, Suleiman JM, et al. The safety and efficacy of tenofovir DF in combination with lamivudine and efavirenz through 6 years in antiretroviral-naïve HIV-1-infected patients. HIV Clin Trials. 2007;8:164-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Côté HC, Brumme ZL, Craib KJ, et al. Changes in mitochondrial DNA as a marker of nucleoside toxicity in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:811-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Choi AI, Vittinghoff E, Deeks SG, Weekley CC, Li Y, Shlipak MG. Cardiovascular risks associated with abacavir and tenofovir exposure in HIV-infected persons. AIDS. 2011;25:1289-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen SD, Chawla LS, Kimmel PL. Acute kidney injury in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2008;14:647-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Cotter AG, Powderly WG. Endocrine complications of human immunodeficiency virus infection: hypogonadism, bone disease and tenofovir-related toxicity. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;25:501-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Cruciani M, Zanichelli V, Serpelloni G, et al. Abacavir use and cardiovascular disease events: a meta-analysis of published and unpublished data. AIDS. 2011;25:1993-2004.

PubMed Abstract»

Domingo P, Gutierrez Mdel M, Gallego-Escuredo JM, et al. Effects of switching from stavudine to raltegravir on subcutaneous adipose tissue in HIV-infected patients with HIV/HAART-associated lipodystrophy syndrome (HALS). A clinical and molecular study. PLoS One. 2014;9:e89088.

PubMed Abstract»

Domingo P, Labarga P, Palacios R, et al. Improvement of dyslipidemia in patients switching from stavudine to tenofovir: preliminary results. AIDS. 2004;18:1475-8.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Feeney ER, Mallon PW. HIV and HAART-Associated Dyslipidemia. Open Cardiovasc Med J. 2011;5:49-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernandez-Montero JV, Eugenia E, Barreiro P, Labarga P, Soriano V. Antiretroviral drug-related toxicities - clinical spectrum, prevention, and management. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2013;12:697-707.

PubMed Abstract»

Fessel J, Hurley LB. Incidence of pancreatitis in HIV-infected patients: comment on findings in EuroSIDA cohort. AIDS. 2008;22:145-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant JE, Daar ES, Raffi F, et al. Efficacy and safety of tenofovir alafenamide versus tenofovir disoproxil fumarate given as fixed-dose combinations containing emtricitabine as backbones for treatment of HIV-1 infection in virologically suppressed adults: a randomised, double-blind, active-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet HIV. 2016:e158-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant JE, DeJesus E, Arribas JR, et al. Tenofovir DF, emtricitabine, and efavirenz vs. zidovudine, lamivudine, and efavirenz for HIV. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:251-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Gomez M, Seybold U, Roider J, Härter G, Bogner JR. A retrospective analysis of weight changes in HIV-positive patients switching from a tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)- to a tenofovir alafenamide fumarate (TAF)-containing treatment regimen in one German university hospital in 2015-2017. Infection. 2019;47:95-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Hewitt RG. Abacavir hypersensitivity reaction. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:1137-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Hughes CA, Foisy MM, Dewhurst N, Higgins N, Robinson L, Kelly DV, Lechelt KE. Abacavir hypersensitivity reaction: an update. Ann Pharmacother. 2008;42:387-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Jagdeo J, Ho D, Lo A, Carruthers A. A systematic review of filler agents for aesthetic treatment of HIV facial lipoatrophy (FLA). J Am Acad Dermatol. 2015;73:1040-54.e14.

PubMed Abstract»

James J, Carruthers A, Carruthers J. HIV-associated facial lipoatrophy. Dermatol Surg. 2002;28:979-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim AH, Jang W, Kim Y, Park YJ, Han K, Oh EJ. Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) values reflect therapeutic effectiveness in zidovudine-receiving HIV patients. J Clin Lab Anal. 2013;27:373-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kumar PN, Patel P. Lamivudine for the treatment of HIV. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2010;6:105-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Lactic Acidosis International Study Group 2007. Risk factors for lactic acidosis and severe hyperlactataemia in HIV-1-infected adults exposed to antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2007;21:2455-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee WA, He GX, Eisenberg E, et al. Selective intracellular activation of a novel prodrug of the human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase inhibitor tenofovir leads to preferential distribution and accumulation in lymphatic tissue. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49:1898-906.

PubMed Abstract»

Llamas-Granda P, Martin-Rodríguez L, Largo R, Herrero-Beaumont G, Mediero A. Tenofovir Modulates Semaphorin 4D Signaling and Regulates Bone Homeostasis, Which Can Be Counteracted by Dipyridamole and Adenosine A2A Receptor. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22: 11490.

PubMed Abstract»

Martínez E, Ribera E, Clotet B, et al. Switching from zidovudine/lamivudine to tenofovir/emtricitabine improves fat distribution as measured by fat mass ratio. HIV Med. 2015;16:370-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Martin MA, Kroetz DL. Abacavir pharmacogenetics--from initial reports to standard of care. Pharmacotherapy. 2013;33:765-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Matthews LT, Giddy J, Ghebremichael M, et al. A risk-factor guided approach to reducing lactic acidosis and hyperlactatemia in patients on antiretroviral therapy. PLoS One. 2011;6:e18736.

PubMed Abstract»

McComsey GA, Tebas P, Shane E, et al. Bone disease in HIV infection: a practical review and recommendations for HIV care providers. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:937-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Mocroft A, Kirk O, Reiss P, et al. Estimated glomerular filtration rate, chronic kidney disease and antiretroviral drug use in HIV-positive patients. AIDS. 2010;24:1667-78.

PubMed Abstract»

Modrzejewski KA, Herman RA. Emtricitabine: a once-daily nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor. Ann Pharmacother. 2004;38:1006-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyle GJ, Orkin C, Fisher M, et al. A randomized comparative trial of continued abacavir/lamivudine plus efavirenz or replacement with efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir DF in hypercholesterolemic HIV-1 infected individuals. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0116297.

PubMed Abstract»

Nishijima T, Shimbo T, Komatsu H, et al. Cumulative exposure to ritonavir-boosted atazanavir is associated with cholelithiasis in patients with HIV-1 infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:1385-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Nishijima T, Yazaki H, Hinoshita F, et al. Drug-induced acute interstitial nephritis mimicking acute tubular necrosis after initiation of tenofovir-containing antiretroviral therapy in patient with HIV-1 infection. Intern Med. 2012;51:2469-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Nolan D, Mallal S. Antiretroviral-therapy-associated lipoatrophy: current status and future directions. Sex Health. 2005;2:153-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Nolan D, Mallal S. The role of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in the fat redistribution syndrome. J HIV Ther. 2004;9:34-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for the antiretroviral-naïve patient. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Perry CM, Balfour JA. Didanosine. An update on its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in the management of HIV disease. Drugs. 1996;52:928-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Phillips DR, Hay P. Current perspectives on the management and prevention of antiretroviral-associated lipoatrophy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62:866-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Pozniak A, Arribas JR, Gathe J, et al. Switching to Tenofovir Alafenamide, Coformulated With Elvitegravir, Cobicistat, and Emtricitabine, in HIV-Infected Patients With Renal Impairment: 48-Week Results From a Single-Arm, Multicenter, Open-Label Phase 3 Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;71:530-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodríguez-Nóvoa S, Labarga P, Soriano V, et al. Predictors of kidney tubular dysfunction in HIV-infected patients treated with tenofovir: a pharmacogenetic study. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:e108-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryom L, Mocroft A, Kirk O, et al. Association between antiretroviral exposure and renal impairment among HIV-positive persons with normal baseline renal function: the D:A:D study. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:1359-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Saag MS. Emtricitabine, a new antiretroviral agent with activity against HIV and hepatitis B virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:126-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Sabin CA, Reiss P, Ryom L, et al. Is there continued evidence for an association between abacavir usage and myocardial infarction risk in individuals with HIV? A cohort collaboration. BMC Med. 2016;14:61.

PubMed Abstract»

Satchell CS, O'Halloran JA, Cotter AG, et al. Increased platelet reactivity in HIV-1-infected patients receiving abacavir-containing antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2011;204:1202-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Schambelan M, Benson CA, Carr A, et al. Management of metabolic complications associated with antiretroviral therapy for HIV-1 infection: recommendations of an International AIDS Society-USA panel. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;31:257-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Scherzer R, Estrella M, Li Y, et al. Association of tenofovir exposure with kidney disease risk in HIV infection. AIDS. 2012;26:867-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Scruggs ER, Dirks Naylor AJ. Mechanisms of zidovudine-induced mitochondrial toxicity and myopathy. Pharmacology. 2008;82:83-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Shah S, Pilkington V, Hill A. Is tenofovir disoproxil fumarate associated with weight loss? AIDS. 2021;35:S189-S195.

PubMed Abstract»

Skin discoloration with FTC. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2004;18:616.

PubMed Abstract»

SMART/INSIGHT; DAD Study Groups. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2008;22:F17-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Strategies for Management of Anti-Retroviral Therapy/INSIGHT1; DAD Study Groups. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2008;22:F17-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Tebas P, Sension M, Arribas J, et al. Lipid levels and changes in body fat distribution in treatment-naive, HIV-1-Infected adults treated with rilpivirine or Efavirenz for 96 weeks in the ECHO and THRIVE trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:425-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Trevillyan JM, Arthur JF, Jing J, Andrews RK, Gardiner EE, Hoy JF. Effects of abacavir administration on structural and functional markers of platelet activation. AIDS. 2015;29:2309-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Tungsiripat M, Kitch D, Glesby MJ, et al. A pilot study to determine the impact on dyslipidemia of adding tenofovir to stable background antiretroviral therapy: ACTG 5206. AIDS. 2010;24:1781-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Welzen BJ, Thielen MAJ, Mudrikova T, Arends JE, Hoepelman AIM. Switching tenofovir disoproxil fumarate to tenofovir alafenamide results in a significant decline in parathyroid hormone levels: uncovering the mechanism of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-related bone loss? AIDS. 2019;33:1531-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Venter WDF, Moorhouse M, Sokhela S, et al. Dolutegravir plus Two Different Prodrugs of Tenofovir to Treat HIV. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:803-15.

PubMed Abstract»

White AJ. Mitochondrial toxicity and HIV therapy. Sex Transm Infect. 2001;77:158-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Wooltorton E. HIV drug stavudine (Zerit, d4T) and symptoms mimicking Guillain-Barré syndrome. CMAJ. 2002;166:1067.

PubMed Abstract»

Yoshino M, Yagura H, Kushida H, et al. Assessing recovery of renal function after tenofovir disoproxil fumarate discontinuation. J Infect Chemother. 2012;18:169-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

Abdelhady AM, Shugg T, Thong N, et al. Efavirenz Inhibits the Human Ether-A-Go-Go Related Current (hERG) and Induces QT Interval Prolongation in CYP2B6*6*6 Allele Carriers. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2016;27:1206-1213.

PubMed Abstract»

Antinori A, Baldini F, Girardi E, et al. Female sex and the use of anti-allergic agents increase the risk of developing cutaneous rash associated with nevirapine therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:1579-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Arendt G, de Nocker D, von Giesen HJ, Nolting T. Neuropsychiatric side effects of efavirenz therapy. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2007;6:147-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Barreiro P, Soriano V, Casas E, et al. Prevention of nevirapine-associated exanthema using slow dose escalation and/or corticosteroids. AIDS. 2000;14:2153-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Baylor MS, Johann-Liang R. Hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine use. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr. 2004;35:538-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Behrens G, Rijnders B, Nelson M, et al. Rilpivirine versus efavirenz with emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in treatment-naïve HIV-1-infected patients with HIV-1 RNA ≤100,000 copies/mL: week 96 pooled ECHO/THRIVE subanalysis. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2014;28:168-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Brück S, Witte S, Brust J, et al. Hepatotoxicity in patients prescribed efavirenz or nevirapine. Eur J Med Res. 2008;13:343-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, McComsey GA. Association between initiation of antiretroviral therapy with efavirenz and decreases in 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Antivir Ther. 2010;15:425-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Castillo R, Pedalino RP, El-Sherif N, Turitto G. Efavirenz-associated QT prolongation and Torsade de Pointes arrhythmia. Ann Pharmacother. 2002;36:1006-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen CJ, Andrade-Villanueva J, Clotet B, et al. Rilpivirine versus efavirenz with two background nucleoside or nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors in treatment-naive adults infected with HIV-1 (THRIVE): a phase 3, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2011;378:229-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen CJ, Molina JM, Cassetti I, et al. Week 96 efficacy and safety of rilpivirine in treatment-naive, HIV-1 patients in two Phase III randomized trials. AIDS. 2013;27:939-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Colombier MA, Molina JM. Doravirine: a review. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:308-314.

PubMed Abstract»

Crane HM, Grunfeld C, Willig JH, et al. Impact of NRTIs on lipid levels among a large HIV-infected cohort initiating antiretroviral therapy in clinical care. AIDS. 2011;25:185-95.

PubMed Abstract»

De Santis M, Carducci B, De Santis L, Cavaliere AF, Straface G. Periconceptional exposure to efavirenz and neural tube defects. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:355.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks ED. Doravirine: First Global Approval. Drugs. 2018;78:1643-1650.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks ED. Emtricitabine/rilpivirine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate single-tablet regimen: a review of its use in HIV infection. Drugs. 2014;74:2079-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Echenique IA, Rich JD. EFV/FTC/TDF-associated hepatotoxicity: a case report and review. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2013;27:493-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Mofenson L, Kranzer K, et al. Safety of efavirenz in first-trimester of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of outcomes from observational cohorts. AIDS. 2010;24:1461-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Mofenson L, Shubber Z, et al. Safety of efavirenz in the first trimester of pregnancy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2014;28 Suppl 2:S123-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Fundarò C, Genovese O, Rendeli C, Tamburrini E, Salvaggio E. Myelomeningocele in a child with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz. AIDS. 2002;16:299-300.

PubMed Abstract»

Girard PM, Campbell TB, Grinsztejn B, et al. Pooled week 96 results of the phase III DUET-1 and DUET-2 trials of etravirine: further analysis of adverse events and laboratory abnormalities of special interest. HIV Med. 2012;13:427-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Gotti D, Cesana BM, Albini L, et al. Increase in standard cholesterol and large HDL particle subclasses in antiretroviral-naïve patients prescribed efavirenz compared to atazanavir/ritonavir. HIV Clin Trials. 2012;13:245-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinsztejn B, Di Perri G, Towner W, Woodfall B, De Smedt G, Peeters M. A review of the safety and tolerability profile of the next-generation NNRTI etravirine. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2010;26:725-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Khalili H, Farasatinasab M, Hajiabdolbaghi M. Efavirenz severe hypersensitivity reaction: case report and rapid desensitization protocol development. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46:e12.

PubMed Abstract»

Knobel H, Miro JM, Domingo P, et al. Failure of a short-term prednisone regimen to prevent nevirapine-associated rash: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial: the GESIDA 09/99 study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28:14-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Leung JM, O'Brien JG, Wong HK, Winslow DL. Efavirenz-induced hypersensitivity reaction manifesting in rash and hepatitis in a Latino male. Ann Pharmacother. 2008;42:425-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mallon PW, Brunet L, Hsu RK, et al. Weight gain before and after switch from TDF to TAF in a U.S. cohort study. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021;24:e25702.

PubMed Abstract»

Manosuthi W, Sukasem C, Lueangniyomkul A, et al. CYP2B6 haplotype and biological factors responsible for hepatotoxicity in HIV-infected patients receiving efavirenz-based antiretroviral therapy. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014;43:292-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Marzolini C, Telenti A, Decosterd LA, Greub G, Biollaz J, Buclin T. Efavirenz plasma levels can predict treatment failure and central nervous system side effects in HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS. 2001;15:71-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Mills AM, Antinori A, Clotet B, et al. Neurological and psychiatric tolerability of rilpivirine (TMC278) vs. efavirenz in treatment-naïve, HIV-1-infected patients at 48 weeks. HIV Med. 2013;14:391-400.

PubMed Abstract»

Mollan KR, Smurzynski M, Eron JJ, et al. Association between efavirenz as initial therapy for HIV-1 infection and increased risk for suicidal ideation or attempted or completed suicide: an analysis of trial data. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Montaner JS, Cahn P, Zala C, et al. Randomized, controlled study of the effects of a short course of prednisone on the incidence of rash associated with nevirapine in patients infected with HIV-1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;33:41-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Nelson MR, Elion RA, Cohen CJ, et al. Rilpivirine versus efavirenz in HIV-1-infected subjects receiving emtricitabine/tenofovir DF: pooled 96-week data from ECHO and THRIVE Studies. HIV Clin Trials. 2013;14:81-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Nylén H, Habtewold A, Makonnen E, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for efavirenz-based antiretroviral treatment-associated severe vitamin D deficiency: A prospective cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95:e4631.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Squires KE, Molina JM, et al. Doravirine/Lamivudine/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate is Non-inferior to Efavirenz/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate in Treatment-naive Adults With Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Infection: Week 48 Results of the DRIVE-AHEAD Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68:535-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Limitations to treatment safety and efficacy: adverse effects of antiretroviral agents. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for the antiretroviral-naïve patient. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: teratogenicity. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Patil R, Ona MA, Papafragkakis H, et al. Acute Liver Toxicity due to Efavirenz/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir. Case Reports Hepatol. 2015;2015:280353.

PubMed Abstract»

Sanne I, Mommeja-Marin H, Hinkle J, et al. Severe hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine use in HIV-infected subjects. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:825-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Thomas DL, Mehta SH, Chaisson RE, Moore RD. Hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine or efavirenz-containing antiretroviral therapy: role of hepatitis C and B infections. Hepatology. 2002;35:182-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Andrade-Villanueva JF, Richmond GJ, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine for Maintenance of HIV-1 Suppression. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1112-23.

PubMed Abstract»

van Lunzen J, Antinori A, Cohen CJ, et al. Rilpivirine vs. efavirenz-based single-tablet regimens in treatment-naive adults: week 96 efficacy and safety from a randomized phase 3b study. AIDS. 2016;30:251-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Welz T, Childs K, Ibrahim F, et al. Efavirenz is associated with severe vitamin D deficiency and increased alkaline phosphatase. AIDS. 2010;24:1923-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Wit FWNM, Wood R, Horban A, et al. Prednisolone does not prevent hypersensitivity reactions in antiretroviral drug regimens containing abacavir with or without nevirapine. AIDS. 2001;15:2423-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Pharmacologic Boosters

German P, Liu HC, Szwarcberg J, et al. Effect of cobicistat on glomerular filtration rate in subjects with normal and impaired renal function. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:32-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Sherman EM, Worley MV, Unger NR, Gauthier TP, Schafer JJ. Cobicistat: Review of a Pharmacokinetic Enhancer for HIV Infection. Clin Ther. 2015;37:1876-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Stray KM, Bam RA, Birkus G, et al. Evaluation of the effect of cobicistat on the in vitro renal transport and cytotoxicity potential of tenofovir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:4982-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Protease Inhibitors

Chan-Tack KM, Struble KA, Birnkrant DB. Intracranial hemorrhage and liver-associated deaths associated with tipranavir/ritonavir: review of cases from the FDA's Adverse Event Reporting System. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2008;22:843-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Couzigou C, Daudon M, Meynard JL, et al. Urolithiasis in HIV-positive patients treated with atazanavir. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:e105-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Cvetkovic RS, Goa KL. Lopinavir/ritonavir: a review of its use in the management of HIV infection. Drugs. 2003;63:769-802.

PubMed Abstract»

Eron JJ, Young B, Cooper DA, et al. Switch to a raltegravir-based regimen versus continuation of a lopinavir-ritonavir based regimen in stable HIV-infected patients with suppressed viraemia (SWITCHMRK 1 and 2): two multicentre, double-blind, randomized controlled trials. Lancet 2010; 375:396-407.

PubMed Abstract»

Estrada V, Portilla J. Dyslipidemia related to antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Rev. 2011;13:49-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernandez-Montero JV, Eugenia E, Barreiro P, Labarga P, Soriano V. Antiretroviral drug-related toxicities - clinical spectrum, prevention, and management. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2013;12:697-707.

PubMed Abstract»

Friis-Møller N, Worm SW. Can the risk of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected patients be estimated from conventional risk prediction tools? Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1082-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Gentle DL, Stoller ML, Jarrett TW, Ward JF, Geib KS, Wood AF. Protease inhibitor-induced urolithiasis. Urology. 1997;50:508-511.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon S, Carr A. Cardiovascular risk and body-fat abnormalities in HIV-infected adults. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:48-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamada Y, Nishijima T, Komatsu H, et al. Is ritonavir-boosted atazanavir a risk for cholelithiasis compared to other protease inhibitors? PLoS One. 2013;8:e69845.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamada Y, Nishijima T, Watanabe K, et al. High incidence of renal stones among HIV-infected patients on ritonavir-boosted atazanavir than in those receiving other protease inhibitor-containing antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1262-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hara M, Suganuma A, Yanagisawa N, Imamura A, Hishima T, Ando M. Atazanavir nephrotoxicity. Clin Kidney J. 2015;8:137-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Hollmig KA, Beck SB, Doll DC. Severe bleeding complications in HIV-positive haemophiliac patients treated with protease inhibitors. Eur J Med Res. 2001;6:112-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Hunt K, Hughes CA, Hills-Nieminen C. Protease inhibitor-associated QT interval prolongation. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45:1544-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Kopp JB, Miller KD, Mican JM, et al. Crystalluria and urinary tract abnormalities associated with indinavir. Ann Intern Med. 1997;127:119-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Madruga JV, Berger D, McMurchie M, et al. Efficacy and safety of darunavir-ritonavir compared with that of lopinavir-ritonavir at 48 weeks in treatment-experienced, HIV-infected patients in TITAN: a randomised controlled phase III trial. Lancet. 2007;370:49-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Merry C, McMahon C, Ryan M, O'Shea E, Mulcahy F, Smith OP. Successful use of protease inhibitors in HIV-infected haemophilia patients. Br J Haematol. 1998;101:475-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Andrade-Villanueva J, Echevarria J, et al. Once-daily atazanavir/ritonavir compared with twice-daily lopinavir/ritonavir, each in combination with tenofovir and emtricitabine, for management of antiretroviral-naive HIV-1-infected patients: 96-week efficacy and safety results of the CASTLE study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;53:323-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Andrade-Villanueva J, Echevarria J, et al. Once-daily atazanavir/ritonavir versus twice-daily lopinavir/ritonavir, each in combination with tenofovir and emtricitabine, for management of antiretroviral-naive HIV-1-infected patients: 48 week efficacy and safety results of the CASTLE study. Lancet. 2008;372(9639):646-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Clotet B, van Lunzen J, et al. Once-daily dolutegravir is superior to once-daily darunavir/ritonavir in treatment-naïve HIV-1-positive individuals: 96 week results from FLAMINGO. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19490.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Clumeck N, Orkin C, Rimsky LT, Vanveggel S, Stevens M. Week 96 analysis of rilpivirine or efavirenz in HIV-1-infected patients with baseline viral load ≤ 100 000 copies/mL in the pooled ECHO and THRIVE phase 3, randomized, double-blind trials. HIV Med. 2014;15:57-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Ortiz R, Dejesus E, Khanlou H, et al. Efficacy and safety of once-daily darunavir/ritonavir versus lopinavir/ritonavir in treatment-naive HIV-1-infected patients at week 48. AIDS. 2008;22:1389-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Limitations to treatment safety and efficacy: adverse effects of antiretroviral agents. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for the antiretroviral-naïve patient. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Pollmann H, Richter H, Jürgens H. Platelet dysfunction as the cause of spontaneous bleeding in two haemophilic patients taking HIV protease inhibitors. Thromb Haemost. 1998;79:1213-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Racoosin JA, Kessler CM. Bleeding episodes in HIV-positive patients taking HIV protease inhibitors: a case series. Haemophilia. 1999;5:266-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rakotondravelo S, Poinsignon Y, Borsa-Lebas F, et al. Complicated atazanavir-associated cholelithiasis: a report of 14 cases. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1270-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Rockwood N, Mandalia S, Bower M, Gazzard B, Nelson M. Ritonavir-boosted atazanavir exposure is associated with an increased rate of renal stones compared with efavirenz, ritonavir-boosted lopinavir and ritonavir-boosted darunavir. AIDS. 2011;25:1671-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Soliman EZ, Lundgren JD, Roediger MP, et al. Boosted protease inhibitors and the electrocardiographic measures of QT and PR durations. AIDS. 2011;25:367-77.

PubMed Abstract]»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Drug Safety Communication: Ongoing safety review of Invirase (saquinavir) and possible association with abnormal heart rhythms

FDA Alert»

PubMed Abstract»

Zhang D, Chando TJ, Everett DW, Patten CJ, Dehal SS, Humphreys WG. In vitro inhibition of UDP glucuronosyltransferases by atazanavir and other HIV protease inhibitors and the relationship of this property to in vivo bilirubin glucuronidation. Drug Metab Dispos. 2005;33:1729-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Zhou H, Pandak WM Jr, Lyall V, Natarajan R, Hylemon PB. HIV protease inhibitors activate the unfolded protein response in macrophages: implication for atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Mol Pharmacol. 2005;68:690-700.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 2. Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Medications

Capsid Inhibitors

Mushtaq A, Kazi F. Lenacapavir: a new treatment of resistant HIV-1 infections. Lancet Infect Dis. 2023;23:286.

PubMed Abstract»

Segal-Maurer S, DeJesus E, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Capsid Inhibition with Lenacapavir in Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1793-1803.

PubMed Abstract»

Aberg JA, Williams PL, Liu T, et al. A study of discontinuing maintenance therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects with disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex: AIDS Clinical Trial Group 393 Study Team. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:1046-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Bellini C, Keiser O, Chave JP, et al. Liver enzyme elevation after lamivudine withdrawal in HIV-hepatitis B virus co-infected patients: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. HIV Med. 2009;10:12-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bozzette SA. HIV and Cardiovascular Disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:92-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Fink V, Patterson P. Fostemsavir: a new CD4 attachment inhibitor. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:341-345.

PubMed Abstract»

Carr A, Samaras K, Burton S, Law M, Freund J, Chisholm DJ, Cooper DA. A syndrome of peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia and insulin resistance in patients receiving HIV protease inhibitors. AIDS. 1998;12:F51-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Cooper DA, Heera J, Ive P, et al. Efficacy and safety of maraviroc vs. efavirenz in treatment-naive patients with HIV-1: 5-year findings. AIDS. 2014;28:717-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Cruciani M, Zanichelli V, Serpelloni G, et al. Abacavir use and cardiovascular disease events: a meta-analysis of published and unpublished data. AIDS. 2011;25:1993-2004.

PubMed Abstract»

Cvetkovic RS, Goa KL. Lopinavir/ritonavir: a review of its use in the management of HIV infection. Drugs. 2003;63:769-802.

PubMed Abstract»

Dao CN, Patel P, Overton ET, et al. Low vitamin D among HIV-infected adults: prevalence of and risk factors for low vitamin D Levels in a cohort of HIV-infected adults and comparison to prevalence among adults in the US general population. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:396-405.

PubMed Abstract»

De Lazzari E, León A, Arnaiz JA, et al. Hepatotoxicity of nevirapine in virologically suppressed patients according to gender and CD4 cell counts. HIV Med. 2008;9:221-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Dore GJ, Soriano V, Rockstroh J, et al. Frequent hepatitis B virus rebound among HIV-hepatitis B virus-coinfected patients following antiretroviral therapy interruption. AIDS. 2010;24:857-65.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Freiberg MS, Chang CC, Kuller LH et al. HIV Infection and the risk of acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:614-22.

PubMed Abstract»

German P, Liu HC, Szwarcberg J, et al. Effect of cobicistat on glomerular filtration rate in subjects with normal and impaired renal function. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:32-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Griesel R, Maartens G, Chirehwa M, et al. CYP2B6 Genotype and Weight Gain Differences Between Dolutegravir and Efavirenz. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e3902-e3909.

PubMed Abstract»

Huang SH, Huang WC, Lin SW, et al. Impact of Efavirenz Mid-dose Plasma Concentration on Long-Term Weight Change Among Virologically Suppressed People Living With HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2021;87:834-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Kozal M, Aberg J, Pialoux G, et al. Fostemsavir in Adults with Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1232-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Lake JE, Trevillyan J. Impact of Integrase inhibitors and tenofovir alafenamide on weight gain in people with HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2021;16:148-151.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Lea AP, Faulds D. Stavudine: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and clinical potential in HIV infection. Drugs. 1996;51:846-64.

PubMed Abstract»

McComsey GA, Tebas P, Shane E, et al. Bone disease in HIV infection: a practical review and recommendations for HIV care providers. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:937-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Mirza RA, Turiansky GW. Enfuvirtide and cutaneous injection-site reactions. J Drugs Dermatol. 2012;11:e35-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Mocroft A, Kirk O, Reiss P, et al. Estimated glomerular filtration rate, chronic kidney disease and antiretroviral drug use in HIV-positive patients. AIDS. 2010;24:1667-78.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Squires K, Sax PE, et al. Doravirine versus ritonavir-boosted darunavir in antiretroviral-naive adults with HIV-1 (DRIVE-FORWARD): 48-week results of a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e211-e220.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Limitations to treatment safety and efficacy: adverse effects of antiretroviral agents. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Poeta J, Linden R, Antunes MV, et al. Plasma concentrations of efavirenz are associated with body weight in HIV-positive individuals. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:2601-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Scherzer R, Estrella M, Li Y, et al. Association of tenofovir exposure with kidney disease risk in HIV infection. AIDS. 2012;26:867-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Tebas P. Insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus associated with antiretroviral use in HIV-infected patients: pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment options. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49 Suppl 2:S86-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Tungsiripat M, Kitch D, Glesby MJ, et al. A pilot study to determine the impact on dyslipidemia of adding tenofovir to stable background antiretroviral therapy: ACTG 5206. AIDS. 2010;24:1781-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Vogel M, Rockstroh JK. Hepatotoxicity and liver disease in the context of HIV therapy. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2007;2:306-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Wallace BJ, Tan KB, Pett SL, Cooper DA, Kossard S, Whitfeld MJ. Enfuvirtide injection site reactions: a clinical and histopathological appraisal. Australas J Dermatol. 2011;52:19-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Walmsley SL, Antela A, Clumeck N, et al. Dolutegravir plus abacavir-lamivudine for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1807-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Yombi JC, Pozniak A, Boffito M, et al. Antiretrovirals and the kidney in current clinical practice: renal pharmacokinetics, alterations of renal function and renal toxicity. AIDS. 2014;28:621-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Anticonvulsants

HIV.gov»

Siddiqi O, Birbeck GL. Safe Treatment of Seizures in the Setting of HIV/AIDS. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2013;15:529-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Overview

HIV.gov»

Patel N, Abdelsayed S, Veve M, Miller CD. Predictors of clinically significant drug-drug interactions among patients treated with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-, protease inhibitor-, and raltegravir-based antiretroviral regimens. Ann Pharmacother. 2011;45:317-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Podany AT, Scarsi KK, Fletcher CV. Comparative Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of HIV-1 Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2017;56:25-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Valdes R Jr, Yin DT. Fundamentals of Pharmacogenetics in Personalized, Precision Medicine. Clin Lab Med. 2016;36:447-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilkinson GR. Drug metabolism and variability among patients in drug response. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2211-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Acid Suppressive Therapy and Supplements

Béïque L, Giguère P, la Porte C, Angel J. Interactions between protease inhibitors and acid-reducing agents: a systematic review. HIV Med. 2007;8:335-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Crauwels H, van Heeswijk RP, Stevens M, et al. Clinical perspective on drug-drug interactions with the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor rilpivirine. AIDS Rev. 2013;15:87-101.

PubMed Abstract»

Kiser JJ, Bumpass JB, Meditz AL, et al. Effect of antacids on the pharmacokinetics of raltegravir in human immunodeficiency virus-seronegative volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:4999-5003.

PubMed Abstract»

Luber AD. Use of acid-reducing agents in protease inhibitor-based HAART and the potential for negative treatment outcomes. AIDS Read. 2005;15:692-5, 698-700.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Song I, Borland J, Arya N, Wynne B, Piscitelli S. Pharmacokinetics of dolutegravir when administered with mineral supplements in healthy adult subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2015;55:490-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Wang X, Boffito M, Zhang J, et al. Effects of the H2-receptor antagonist famotidine on the pharmacokinetics of atazanavir-ritonavir with or without tenofovir in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2011;25:509-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Antimycobacterials

Cerrone M, Alfarisi O, Neary M, et al. Rifampicin effect on intracellular and plasma pharmacokinetics of tenofovir alafenamide. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;74:1670-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Dunne M, Fessel J, Kumar P, et al. A randomized, double-blind trial comparing azithromycin and clarithromycin in the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium infection in patients with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:1245-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Havlir DV, Dube MP, Sattler FR, et al. Prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex with weekly azithromycin, daily rifabutin, or both. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:392-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Jiang HY, Zhang MN, Chen HJ, Yang Y, Deng M, Ruan B. Nevirapine versus efavirenz for patients co-infected with HIV and tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2014;25:130-5.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24c. Drug interactions between nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24f. Drug interactions between the HIV-1 gp120-directed attachment inhibitors and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24g. Drug interactions between the capsid inhibitor lenacapavir and other drugs. March 23, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24e. Drug interactions between the CCR5 antagonist maraviroc and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions: drug interactions between non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and disease. Last updated May 2, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Pham HT, Mesplède T. Bictegravir in a fixed-dose tablet with emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide for the treatment of HIV infection: pharmacology and clinical implications. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2019;20:385-397.

PubMed Abstract»

Podany AT, Bao Y, Swindells S, et al. Efavirenz Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in HIV-Infected Persons Receiving Rifapentine and Isoniazid for Tuberculosis Prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1322-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Taburet AM, Sauvageon H, Grinsztejn B, et al. Pharmacokinetics of Raltegravir in HIV-Infected Patients on Rifampicin-Based Antitubercular Therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1328-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiner M, Egelund EF, Engle M, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction of rifapentine and raltegravir in healthy volunteers. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:1079-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Cardiovascular Medications

Armah KA, Chang CC, Baker JV, et al. Prehypertension, hypertension, and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in HIV-infected and -uninfected veterans. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;58:121-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cattelan AM, Trevenzoli M, Sasset L, Rinaldi L, Balasso V, Cadrobbi P. Indinavir and systemic hypertension. AIDS. 2001;15:805-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Gillette MA, Shah BM, Schafer JJ, DeSimone JA Jr. Dolutegravir: a new integrase strand transfer inhibitor for the treatment of HIV - an alternative viewpoint. Pharmacotherapy. 2014;34:e173-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Glesby MJ, Aberg JA, Kendall MA, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between indinavir plus ritonavir and calcium channel blockers. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;78:143-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Khalsa A, Karim R, Mack WJ, et al. Correlates of prevalent hypertension in a large cohort of HIV-infected women: Women's Interagency HIV Study. AIDS. 2007;21:2539-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Krauskopf K, Van Natta ML, Danis RP, et al. Correlates of hypertension in patients with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2013;12:325-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Medina-Torne S, Ganesan A, Barahona I, Crum-Cianflone NF. Hypertension is common among HIV-infected persons, but not associated with HAART. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic). 2011;11:20-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24g. Drug interactions between the capsid inhibitor lenacapavir and other drugs. March 23, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Peyriere H, Eiden C, Macia JC, Reynes J. Antihypertensive drugs in patients treated with antiretrovirals. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46:703-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Phillips EJ, Rachlis AR, Ito S. Digoxin toxicity and ritonavir: a drug interaction mediated through p-glycoprotein? AIDS. 2003;17:1577-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Thiébaut R, El-Sadr WM, Friis-Møller N, et al. Predictors of hypertension and changes of blood pressure in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther. 2005;10:811-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Yoganathan K, Roberts B, Heatley MK. Life-threatening digoxin toxicity due to drug-drug interactions in an HIV-positive man. Int J STD AIDS. 2017;28:297-301.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Corticosteroids

Albert NE, Kazi S, Santoro J, Dougherty R. Ritonavir and epidural triamcinolone as a cause of iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome. Am J Med Sci. 2012;344:72-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Clevenbergh P, Corcostegui M, Gérard D, et al. Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome in an HIV-infected patient treated with inhaled corticosteroids (fluticasone propionate) and low dose ritonavir enhanced PI containing regimen. J Infect. 2002;44:194-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Foisy MM, Yakiwchuk EM, Chiu I, Singh AE. Adrenal suppression and Cushing's syndrome secondary to an interaction between ritonavir and fluticasone: a review of the literature. HIV Med. 2008;9:389-96

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta SK, Dubé MP. Exogenous cushing syndrome mimicking human immunodeficiency virus lipodystrophy. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:E69-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall JJ, Hughes CA, Foisy MM, Houston S, Shafran S. Iatrogenic Cushing syndrome after intra-articular triamcinolone in a patient receiving ritonavir-boosted darunavir. Int J STD AIDS. 2013;24:748-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Jakeman B, Conklin J, Bouchonville M, Thornton K. Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome after triamcinolone plus ritonavir-boosted atazanavir. J Am Pharm Assoc (2003). 2015;55:193-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kedem E, Shahar E, Hassoun G, Pollack S. Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome due to coadministration of ritonavir and inhaled budesonide in an asthmatic human immunodeficiency virus infected patient. J Asthma. 2010;47:830-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Lewis J, Turtle L, Khoo S, Nsutebu EN. A case of iatrogenic adrenal suppression after co-administration of cobicistat and fluticasone nasal drops. AIDS. 2014;28:2636-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Molloy A, Matheson NJ, Meyer PA, Chaterjee K, Gkrania-Klotsas E. Cushing's syndrome and adrenal axis suppression in a patient treated with ritonavir and corticosteroid eye drops. AIDS. 2011;25:1337-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24g. Drug interactions between the capsid inhibitor lenacapavir and other drugs. March 23, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Samaras K, Pett S, Gowers A, McMurchie M, Cooper DA. Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome with osteoporosis and secondary adrenal failure in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients receiving inhaled corticosteroids and ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors: six cases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:4394-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Sharma M, Saravolatz LD. Rilpivirine: a new non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68:250-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Song Y, Schroeder JR, Bush LM. Iatrogenic Cushing syndrome and secondary adrenal insufficiency related to concomitant triamcinolone and ritonavir administration: a case report and review. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2014;13:511-4.

PubMed Abstract»

St Germain RM, Yigit S, Wells L, Girotto JE, Salazar JC. Cushing syndrome and severe adrenal suppression caused by fluticasone and protease inhibitor combination in an HIV-infected adolescent. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21:373-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Hepatitis C Treatments

Brooks KM, Castillo-Mancilla JR, Blum J, et al. Increased tenofovir monoester concentrations in patients receiving tenofovir disoproxil fumarate with ledipasvir/sofosbuvir. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;74:2360-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Brooks KM, Castillo-Mancilla JR, Morrow M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and renal safety of tenofovir alafenamide with boosted protease inhibitors and ledipasvir/sofosbuvir. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2020;75:3303-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Cope R, Pickering A, Glowa T, Faulds S, Veldkamp P, Prasad R. Majority of HIV/HCV Patients Need to Switch Antiretroviral Therapy to Accommodate Direct Acting Antivirals. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:379-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Falade-Nwulia O, Suarez-Cuervo C, Nelson DR, Fried MW, Segal JB, Sulkowski MS. Oral Direct-Acting Agent Therapy for Hepatitis C Virus Infection: A Systematic Review. Ann Intern Med. 2017;166:637-648.

PubMed Abstract»

Huhn GD, Ramgopal M, Jain MK, et al. HIV/HCV therapy with ledipasvir/sofosbuvir after randomized switch to emtricitabine-tenofovir alafenamide-based single-tablet regimens. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0224875.

PubMed Abstract»

King JR, Menon RM. Ombitasvir/Paritaprevir/Ritonavir and Dasabuvir: Drug Interactions With Antiretroviral Agents and Drugs forSubstance Abuse. Clin Pharmacol Drug Dev. 2017;6:201-205.

PubMed Abstract»

MacBrayne CE, Marks KM, Fierer DS, et al. Effects of sofosbuvir-based hepatitis C treatment on the pharmacokinetics of tenofovir in HIV/HCV-coinfected individuals receiving tenofovir disoproxil fumarate. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73:2112-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections. hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfection. March 23, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Weisberg IS, Jacobson IM. Primer on Hepatitis C Virus Resistance to Direct-Acting Antiviral Treatment: A Practical Approach for the Treating Physician. Clin Liver Dis. 2017;21:659-672.

PubMed Abstract»

Wyles DL. Regimens for Patients Coinfected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Clin Liver Dis. 2015;19:689-706, vi-vii.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors (Statins)

Aberg JA. Lipid management in patients who have HIV and are receiving HIV therapy. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2009;38:207-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Aboulafia DM, Johnston R. Simvastatin-induced rhabdomyolysis in an HIV-infected patient with coronary artery disease. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2000;14:13-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Aquilante CL, Kiser JJ, Anderson PL, et al. Influence of SLCO1B1 polymorphisms on the drug-drug interaction between darunavir/ritonavir and pravastatin. J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;52:1725-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Castro JG, Gutierrez L. Rhabdomyolysis with acute renal failure probably related to the interaction of atorvastatin and delavirdine. Am J Med. 2002;112:505.

PubMed Abstract»

Chauvin B, Drouot S, Barrail-Tran A, Taburet AM. Drug-drug interactions between HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) and antiviral protease inhibitors. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2013;52:815-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Cheng CH, Miller C, Lowe C, Pearson VE. Rhabdomyolysis due to probable interaction between simvastatin and ritonavir. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2002;59:728-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Fichtenbaum CJ, Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between protease inhibitors and statins in HIV seronegative volunteers: ACTG Study A5047. AIDS. 2002;16:569-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Gerber JG, Rosenkranz SL, Fichtenbaum CJ, et al. Effect of efavirenz on the pharmacokinetics of simvastatin, atorvastatin, and pravastatin: results of AIDS Clinical Trials Group 5108 Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;39:307-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Gilbert JM, Fitch KV, Grinspoon SK. HIV-Related Cardiovascular Disease, Statins, and the REPRIEVE Trial. Top Antivir Med. 2015;23:146-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK, Fitch KV, Zanni MV, et al. Pitavastatin to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease in HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2023;389:687-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Hare CB, Vu MP, Grunfeld C, Lampiris HW. Simvastatin-nelfinavir interaction implicated in rhabdomyolysis and death. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:e111-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Kakuda TN, Schöller-Gyüre M, Hoetelmans RM. Pharmacokinetic interactions between etravirine and non-antiretroviral drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2011;50:25-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Mah Ming JB, Gill MJ. Drug-induced rhabdomyolysis after concomitant use of clarithromycin, atorvastatin, and lopinavir/ritonavir in a patient with HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2003;17:207-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Malvestutto CD, Ma Q, Morse GD, Underberg JA, Aberg JA. Lack of pharmacokinetic interactions between pitavastatin and efavirenz or darunavir/ritonavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:390-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller PE, Martin SS, Joshi PH, et al. Pitavastatin 4 mg Provides Significantly Greater Reduction in Remnant Lipoprotein Cholesterol Compared With Pravastatin 40 mg: Results from the Short-term Phase IV PREVAIL US Trial in Patients With Primary Hyperlipidemia or Mixed Dyslipidemia. Clin Ther. 2016;38:603-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24f. Drug interactions between the HIV-1 gp120-directed attachment inhibitors and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24g. Drug interactions between the capsid inhibitor lenacapavir and other drugs. March 23, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions: drug interactions between non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Pham PA, la Porte CJ, Lee LS, et al. Differential effects of tipranavir plus ritonavir on atorvastatin or rosuvastatin pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:4385-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Schmidt GA, Hoehns JD, Purcell JL, Friedman RL, Elhawi Y. Severe rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure secondary to concomitant use of simvastatin, amiodarone, and atazanavir. J Am Board Fam Med. 2007;20:411-6.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Lee M, Sankatsing R, Schippers E, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of combined use of lopinavir/ritonavir and rosuvastatin in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:1127-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Yu CY, Campbell SE, Sponseller CA, Small DS, Medlock MM, Morgan RE. Steady-state pharmacokinetics of darunavir/ritonavir and pitavastatin when co-administered to healthy adult volunteers. Clin Drug Investig. 2014;34:475-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Mental Health Medications

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Blonk MI, Langemeijer CC, Colbers AP, et al. Pharmacokinetic drug-drug interaction study between raltegravir and citalopram. Antivir Ther. 2016;21:143-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Geraci MJ, McCoy SL, Crum PM, Patel RA. Antipsychotic-induced priapism in an HIV patient: a cytochrome P450-mediated drug interaction. Int J Emerg Med. 2010;3:81-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Pieper AA, Treisman GJ. Drug treatment of depression in HIV-positive patients : safety considerations. Drug Saf. 2005;28:753-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Pollack TM, McCoy C, Stead W. Clinically significant adverse events from a drug interaction between quetiapine and atazanavir-ritonavir in two patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2009;29:1386-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Treisman G, Angelino A. Interrelation between psychiatric disorders and the prevention and treatment of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S313-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Watkins CC, Pieper AA, Treisman GJ. Safety considerations in drug treatment of depression in HIV-positive patients: an updated review. Drug Saf. 2011;34:623-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Opioid Agonist Therapy

Anderson MS, Mabalot Luk JA, Hanley WD, et al. Effect of raltegravir on the pharmacokinetics of methadone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;50:1461-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Clarke SM, Mulcahy FM, Tjia J, Reynolds HE, Gibbons SE, Barry MG, Back DJ. Pharmacokinetic interactions of nevirapine and methadone and guidelines for use of nevirapine to treat injection drug users. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:1595-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Clarke SM, Mulcahy FM, Tjia J, Reynolds HE, Gibbons SE, Barry MG, Back DJ. The pharmacokinetics of methadone in HIV-positive patients receiving the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor efavirenz. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001; 51:213-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Gruber VA, Rainey PM, Moody DE, et al. Interactions between buprenorphine and the protease inhibitors darunavir-ritonavir and fosamprenavir-ritonavir. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:414-23.

PubMed Abstract»

McCance-Katz EF, Rainey PM, Friedland G, Jatlow P. The protease inhibitor lopinavir-ritonavir may produce opiate withdrawal in methadone-maintained patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:476-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Meemken L, Hanhoff N, Tseng A, Christensen S, Gillessen A. Drug-Drug Interactions With Antiviral Agents in People Who Inject Drugs Requiring Substitution Therapy. Ann Pharmacother. 2015;49:796-807.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24g. Drug interactions between the capsid inhibitor lenacapavir and other drugs. March 23, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Schöller-Gyüre M, van den Brink W, Kakuda TN, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of the concomitant administration of methadone and TMC125 in HIV-negative volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;48:322-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Sekar V, Tomaka F, Lefebvre E, De Pauw M, Vangeneugden T, van den Brink W, Hoetelmans R. Pharmacokinetic interactions between darunavir/ritonavir and opioid maintenance therapy using methadone or buprenorphine/naloxone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;51:271-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Song I, Mark S, Chen S, et al. Dolutegravir does not affect methadone pharmacokinetics in opioid-dependent, HIV-seronegative subjects. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;133:781-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Oral Anticoagulants and Antiplatelet Therapy

Béïque L, Giguère P, la Porte C, Angel J. Interactions between protease inhibitors and acid-reducing agents: a systematic review. HIV Med. 2007;8:335-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Corallo CE, Grannell L, Tran H. Postoperative Bleeding After Administration of a Single Dose of Rivaroxaban to a Patient Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy. Drug Saf Case Rep. 2015;2:11.

PubMed Abstract»

Egan G, Hughes CA, Ackman ML. Drug interactions between antiplatelet or novel oral anticoagulant medications and antiretroviral medications. Ann Pharmacother. 2014;48:734-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Lakatos B, Stoeckle M, Elzi L, Battegay M, Marzolini C. Gastrointestinal bleeding associated with rivaroxaban administration in a treated patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Swiss Med Wkly. 2014;144:w13906.

PubMed Abstract»

Nisly SA, Stevens BN. Ritonavir- or cobicistat-boosted antiretroviral therapy and direct oral anticoagulants: A case for apixaban. Int J STD AIDS. 2019;30:718-22.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24g. Drug interactions between the capsid inhibitor lenacapavir and other drugs. March 23, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Phosphodiesterase Type 5 (PDE5) Inhibitors

PubMed Abstract»

Bhasin S, Brito JP, Cunningham GR, et al. Testosterone Therapy in Men With Hypogonadism: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103:1715-1744.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhasin S, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, et al. Testosterone therapy in men with androgen deficiency syndromes: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:2536-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhatia R, Murphy AB, Raper JL, et al. Testosterone replacement therapy among HIV-infected men in the CFAR Network of Integrated Clinical Systems. AIDS. 2015;29:77-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Crauwels H, van Heeswijk RP, Stevens M, et al. Clinical perspective on drug-drug interactions with the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor rilpivirine. AIDS Rev. 2013;15:87-101.

PubMed Abstract»

Crum NF, Furtek KJ, Olson PE, Amling CL, Wallace MR. A review of hypogonadism and erectile dysfunction among HIV-infected men during the pre- and post-HAART eras: diagnosis, pathogenesis, and management. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2005;19:655-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Hohmann N, Reinhard R, Schnaidt S, et al. Treatment with rilpivirine does not alter plasma concentrations of the CYP3A substrates tadalafil and midazolam in humans. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:2241-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24g. Drug interactions between the capsid inhibitor lenacapavir and other drugs. March 23, 2023

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Roberson DW, Kosko DA. Men living with HIV and experiencing sexual dysfunction: an analysis of treatment options. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2013;24:S135-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Wunder DM, Bersinger NA, Fux CA, et al. Hypogonadism in HIV-1-infected men is common and does not resolve during antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:261-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 3. Drug Interactions with Antiretroviral Medications

Miscellaneous Interactions

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Song IH, Zong J, Borland J, et al. The Effect of Dolutegravir on the Pharmacokinetics of Metformin in Healthy Subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72:400-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Zong J, Borland J, Jerva F, Wynne B, Choukour M, Song I. The effect of dolutegravir on the pharmacokinetics of metformin in healthy subjects. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19584.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

PubMed Abstract»

Armah KA, Chang CC, Baker JV, et al. Prehypertension, hypertension, and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in HIV-infected and -uninfected veterans. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;58:121-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Arrington-Sanders R, Hutton N, Siberry GK. Ritonavir-fluticasone interaction causing Cushing syndrome in HIV-infected children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25:1044-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhasin S, Brito JP, Cunningham GR, et al. Testosterone Therapy in Men With Hypogonadism: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103:1715-1744.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhatia R, Murphy AB, Raper JL, et al. Testosterone replacement therapy among HIV-infected men in the CFAR Network of Integrated Clinical Systems. AIDS. 2015;29:77-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhumbra NA, Sahloff EG, Oehrtman SJ, Horner JM. Exogenous Cushing syndrome with inhaled fluticasone in a child receiving lopinavir/ritonavir. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41:1306-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Calza L, Colangeli V, Manfredi R, Bon I, Re MC, Viale P. Clinical management of dyslipidaemia associated with combination antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:1451-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Cattelan AM, Trevenzoli M, Sasset L, Rinaldi L, Balasso V, Cadrobbi P. Indinavir and systemic hypertension. AIDS. 2001;15:805-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Dooley KE, Kaplan R, Mwelase N, et al. Dolutegravir-based Antiretroviral Therapy for Patients Coinfected With Tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A Multicenter, Noncomparative, Open-label, Randomized Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70:549-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Douglas Bruce R, Moody DE, Chodkowski D, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between buprenorphine/naloxone and raltegravir in subjects receiving chronic buprenorphine/naloxone treatment. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2013;39:80-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK, Fitch KV, Zanni MV, et al. Pitavastatin to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease in HIV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2023;389:687-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Johnson SR, Marion AA, Vrchoticky T, Emmanuel PJ, Lujan-Zilbermann J. Cushing syndrome with secondary adrenal insufficiency from concomitant therapy with ritonavir and fluticasone. J Pediatr. 2006;148:386-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Khalsa A, Karim R, Mack WJ, et al. Correlates of prevalent hypertension in a large cohort of HIV-infected women: Women's Interagency HIV Study. AIDS. 2007;21:2539-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Krauskopf K, Van Natta ML, Danis RP, et al. Correlates of hypertension in patients with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2013;12:325-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Lopez Bernaldo de Quiros JC, Miro JM, Peña JM, et al. A randomized trial of the discontinuation of primary and secondary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia after highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV infection. Grupo de Estudio del SIDA 04/98. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:159-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Medina-Torne S, Ganesan A, Barahona I, Crum-Cianflone NF. Hypertension is common among HIV-infected persons, but not associated with HAART. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic). 2011;11:20-5.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and disease. Last updated May 2, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Pessanha TM, Campos JM, Barros AC, Pone MV, Garrido JR, Pone SM. Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome in an adolescent with AIDS on ritonavir and inhaled fluticasone. Case report and literature review. AIDS. 2007;21:529-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Soldatos G, Sztal-Mazer S, Woolley I, Stockigt J. Exogenous glucocorticoid excess as a result of ritonavir-fluticasone interaction. Intern Med J. 2005;35:67-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Thiébaut R, El-Sadr WM, Friis-Møller N, et al. Predictors of hypertension and changes of blood pressure in HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther. 2005;10:811-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Treisman G, Angelino A. Interrelation between psychiatric disorders and the prevention and treatment of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45 Suppl 4:S313-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Valin N, De Castro N, Garrait V, Bergeron A, Bouche C, Molina JM. Iatrogenic Cushing's syndrome in HIV-infected patients receiving ritonavir and inhaled fluticasone: description of 4 new cases and review of the literature. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic). 2009;8:113-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Module 3 » Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Principles of Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

PubMed Abstract»

Aldir I, Horta A, Serrado M. Single-tablet regimens in HIV: does it really make a difference? Curr Med Res Opin. 2014;30:89-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Bangsberg DR, Ragland K, Monk A, Deeks SG. A single tablet regimen is associated with higher adherence and viral suppression than multiple tablet regimens in HIV+ homeless and marginally housed people. AIDS. 2010;24:2835-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Carrero-Gras A, Antela A, Muñoz-Rodríguez J, et al. Nuke-sparing regimens as a main simplification strategy and high level of toxicity resolution after antiretroviral switch: the SWITCHART Study. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19819.

PubMed Abstract»

Collins SE, Grant PM, Shafer RW. Modifying Antiretroviral Therapy in Virologically Suppressed HIV-1-Infected Patients. Drugs. 2016;76:75-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Krentz HB, Gill MJ. The Impact of Non-Antiretroviral Polypharmacy on the Continuity of Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Among HIV Patients. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2016;30:11-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Llibre JM, Cardona G, Santos JR, et al. Antiretroviral treatment switch strategies for lowering the costs of antiretroviral therapy in subjects with suppressed HIV-1 viremia in Spain. Clinicoecon Outcomes Res. 2013;5:215-21.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Connor JL, Gardner EM, Mannheimer SB, et al. Factors associated with adherence amongst 5295 people receiving antiretroviral therapy as part of an international trial. J Infect Dis. 2013;208:40-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: optimizing antiretroviral therapy in the setting of virologic suppression. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Restelli U, Andreoni M, Antinori A, et al. Budget impact analysis of antiretroviral less drug regimen simplification in HIV-positive patients on the Italian National Health Service. Clinicoecon Outcomes Res. 2014;6:409-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Van den Eynde E, Podzamczer D. Switch strategies in antiretroviral therapy regimens. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2014;12:1055-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Zhou S, Martin K, Corbett A, et al. Total daily pill burden in HIV-infected patients in the southern United States. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2014;28:311-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Switching to an Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor

Arribas JR, Pialoux G, Gathe J, et al. Simplification to coformulated elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir versus continuation of ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor with emtricitabine and tenofovir in adults with virologically suppressed HIV (STRATEGY-PI): 48 week results of a randomised, open-label, phase 3b, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:581-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Blanco JL, Gonzalez-Cordón A, Llibre JM, et al. Impact of prior virological failure and nucleos(t)ide genotypic resistance mutations on the efficacy of switching from ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors to raltegravir. Antivir Ther. 2015;20:487-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Brennan AT, Nattey C, Kileel EM, et al. Change in body weight and risk of hypertension after switching from efavirenz to dolutegravir in adults living with HIV: evidence from routine care in Johannesburg, South Africa. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;57:101836.

PubMed Abstract»

Curran A, Martinez E, Saumoy M, et al. Body composition changes after switching from protease inhibitors to raltegravir: SPIRAL-LIP substudy. AIDS. 2012;26:475-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Gatell JM, Assoumou L, Moyle G, et al. Switching from a ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor to a dolutegravir-based regimen for maintenance of HIV viral suppression in patients with high cardiovascular risk. AIDS. 2017;31:2503-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Hagins D, Kumar P, Saag M, et al. Switching to Bictegravir/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Alafenamide in Black Americans With HIV-1: A Randomized Phase 3b, Multicenter, Open-Label Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2021;88:86-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Kityo C, Hagins D, Koenig E, et al. Switching to Fixed-Dose Bictegravir, Emtricitabine, and Tenofovir Alafenamide (B/F/TAF) in Virologically Suppressed HIV-1 Infected Women: A Randomized, Open-Label, Multicenter, Active-Controlled, Phase 3, Noninferiority Trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2019;82:321-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Leonard MA, Cindi Z, Bradford Y, et al. Efavirenz Pharmacogenetics and Weight Gain Following Switch to Integrase Inhibitor-Containing Regimens. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e2153-e2163.

PubMed Abstract»

Maggiolo F, Rizzardini G, Molina JM, et al. Bictegravir/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide in older individuals with HIV: Results of a 96-week, phase 3b, open-label, switch trial in virologically suppressed people ≥65 years of age. HIV Med. 2023;24:27-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Maggiolo F, Rizzardini G, Molina JM, et al. Bictegravir/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Alafenamide in Virologically Suppressed People with HIV Aged ≥ 65 Years: Week 48 Results of a Phase 3b, Open-Label Trial. Infect Dis Ther. 2021;10:775-788.

PubMed Abstract»

Martínez E, Larrousse M, Llibre JM, et al. Substitution of raltegravir for ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors in HIV-infected patients: the SPIRAL study. AIDS. 2010;24:1697-707.

PubMed Abstract»

Masiá M, Martínez E, Padilla S, Gatell JM, Gutiérrez F. Endothelial function in HIV-infected patients switching from a boosted protease inhibitor-based regimen to raltegravir: a substudy of the SPIRAL study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68:409-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Ward D, Brar I, et al. Switching to fixed-dose bictegravir, emtricitabine, and tenofovir alafenamide from dolutegravir plus abacavir and lamivudine in virologically suppressed adults with HIV-1: 48 week results of a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, active-controlled, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e357-e365.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: optimizing antiretroviral therapy in the setting of virologic suppression. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Paton NI, Musaazi J, Kityo C, et al. Dolutegravir or Darunavir in Combination with Zidovudine or Tenofovir to Treat HIV. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:330-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Paton NI, Musaazi J, Kityo C, et al. Efficacy and safety of dolutegravir or darunavir in combination with lamivudine plus either zidovudine or tenofovir for second-line treatment of HIV infection (NADIA): week 96 results from a prospective, multicentre, open-label, factorial, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2022;9:e381-e393.

PubMed Abstract»

Pozniak A, Markowitz M, Mills A, et al. Switching to coformulated elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir versus continuation of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor with emtricitabine and tenofovir in virologically suppressed adults with HIV (STRATEGY-NNRTI): 48 week results of a randomised, open-label, phase 3b non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:590-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Andreatta K, Molina JM, et al. High efficacy of switching to bictegravir/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide in people with suppressed HIV and preexisting M184V/I. AIDS. 2022;36:1511-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Rockstroh JK, Luetkemeyer AF, et al. Switching to Bictegravir, Emtricitabine, and Tenofovir Alafenamide in Virologically Suppressed Adults With Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e485-e493.

PubMed Abstract»

Sempere A, Assoumou L, González-Cordón A, et al. Incidence of hypertension and blood pressure changes in persons with HIV at high risk for cardiovascular disease switching from boosted protease inhibitors to dolutegravir: a post-hoc analysis of the 96-week randomised NEAT-022 trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 May 19. Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Trottier B, Lake JE, Logue K, et al. Dolutegravir/abacavir/lamivudine versus current ART in virally suppressed patients (STRIIVING): a 48-week, randomized, non-inferiority, open-label, Phase IIIb study. Antivir Ther. 2017;22:295-305.

PubMed Abstract»

Van den Eynde E, Podzamczer D. Switch strategies in antiretroviral therapy regimens. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2014;12:1055-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Waters L, Assoumou L, González-Cordón A, et al. Limited Weight Impact After Switching From Boosted Protease Inhibitors to Dolutegravir in Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus With High Cardiovascular Risk: A Post Hoc Analysis of the 96-Week NEAT-022 Randomized Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:861-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Wood BR. Reassuring data for cardiovascular health after switching a boosted protease inhibitor to dolutegravir. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 May 19. Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Switching to a Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor

Cazanave C, Reigadas S, Mazubert C, et al. Switch to Rilpivirine/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Single-Tablet Regimen of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 RNA-Suppressed Patients, Agence Nationale de Recherches sur le SIDA et les Hépatites Virales CO3 Aquitaine Cohort, 2012-2014. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:ofv018.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen CJ, Molina JM, Cassetti I, et al. Week 96 efficacy and safety of rilpivirine in treatment-naive, HIV-1 patients in two Phase III randomized trials. AIDS. 2013;27:939-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Collins SE, Grant PM, Shafer RW. Modifying Antiretroviral Therapy in Virologically Suppressed HIV-1-Infected Patients. Drugs. 2016;76:75-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Collins SE, Grant PM, Uwinkindi F, et al. A Randomized Switch From Nevirapine-Based Antiretroviral Therapy to Single Tablet Rilpivirine/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate in Virologically Suppressed Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1-Infected Rwandans. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016 Sep;3:ofw141.

PubMed Abstract»

DeJesus E, Ramgopal M, Crofoot G, et al. Switching from efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate to tenofovir alafenamide coformulated with rilpivirine and emtricitabine in virally suppressed adults with HIV-1 infection: a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, phase 3b, non-inferiority study. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e205-e213.

PubMed Abstract»

Dejesus E, Young B, Morales-Ramirez JO, et al. Simplification of antiretroviral therapy to a single-tablet regimen consisting of efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus unmodified antiretroviral therapy in virologically suppressed HIV-1-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51:163-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Echeverría P, Bonjoch A, Puig J, et al. Randomised study to assess the efficacy and safety of once-daily etravirine-based regimen as a switching strategy in HIV-infected patients receiving a protease inhibitor-containing regimen. Etraswitch study. PLoS One. 2014;9:e84676.

PubMed Abstract»

Gazaignes S, Resche-Rigon M, Gatey C, et al. Efficacy and safety of a switch to rilpivirine-based regimens in treatment-experienced HIV-1-infected patients: a cohort study. Antivir Ther. 2016;21:329-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Johnson M, Kumar P, Molina JM, et al. Switching to Doravirine/Lamivudine/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate (DOR/3TC/TDF) Maintains HIV-1 Virologic Suppression Through 48 Weeks: Results of the DRIVE-SHIFT Trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2019;81:463-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Mills AM, Cohen C, Dejesus E, et al. Efficacy and safety 48 weeks after switching from efavirenz to rilpivirine using emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-based single-tablet regimens. HIV Clin Trials. 2013;14:216-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Nelson M, Hill A, van Delft Y, Moecklinghoff C. Etravirine as a Switching Option for Patients with HIV RNA Suppression: A Review of Recent Trials. AIDS Res Treat. 2014;2014:636584.

PubMed Abstract»

Nguyen A, Calmy A, Delhumeau C, et al. A randomized crossover study to compare efavirenz and etravirine treatment. AIDS. 2011;25:57-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Elion R, Thompson M, et al. Changes in weight and BMI with first-line doravirine-based therapy. AIDS. 2021;35:91-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Pinnetti C, Di Giambenedetto S, Maggiolo F, et al. Switching to Coformulated Rilpivirine/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir in Virologically Suppressed Patients: Data From a Multicenter Cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:e147-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Ward DJ, Curtin JM. Switch from efavirenz to nevirapine associated with resolution of efavirenz-related neuropsychiatric adverse events and improvement in lipid profiles. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2006;20:542-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Waters L, Fisher M, Winston A, et al. A phase IV, double-blind, multicentre, randomized, placebo-controlled, pilot study to assess the feasibility of switching individuals receiving efavirenz with continuing central nervous system adverse events to etravirine. AIDS. 2011;25:65-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Waters L, Jackson A, Else L, et al. Switching safely: pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of switching efavirenz to maraviroc twice daily in patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther. 2015;20:157-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Within-Class Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Switches

Behrens G, Maserati R, Rieger A, et al. Switching to tenofovir/emtricitabine from abacavir/lamivudine in HIV-infected adults with raised cholesterol: effect on lipid profiles. Antivir Ther. 2012;17:1011-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Campo R, DeJesus E, Bredeek UF, et al. SWIFT: prospective 48-week study to evaluate efficacy and safety of switching to emtricitabine/tenofovir from lamivudine/abacavir in virologically suppressed HIV-1 infected patients on a boosted protease inhibitor containing antiretroviral regimen. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1637-45.

PubMed Abstract»

de los Santos I, Gómez-Berrocal A, Valencia E, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of darunavir/ritonavir in combination with abacavir/lamivudine: an option in selected HIV-infected patients. HIV Clin Trials. 2013;14:254-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Eron JJ, Orkin C, Cunningham D, et al. Week 96 efficacy and safety results of the phase 3, randomized EMERALD trial to evaluate switching from boosted-protease inhibitors plus emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate regimens to the once daily, single-tablet regimen of darunavir/cobicistat/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide (D/C/F/TAF) in treatment-experienced, virologically-suppressed adults living with HIV-1. Antiviral Res. 2019;170:104543.

PubMed Abstract»

Fisher M, Moyle GJ, Shahmanesh M, et al. A randomized comparative trial of continued zidovudine/lamivudine or replacement with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine in efavirenz-treated HIV-1-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51:562-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Huhn GD, Tebas P, Gallant J, et al. A Randomized, Open-Label Trial to Evaluate Switching to Elvitegravir/Cobicistat/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Alafenamide Plus Darunavir in Treatment-Experienced HIV-1-Infected Adults. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;74:193-200.

PubMed Abstract»

Martínez E, Arranz JA, Podzamczer D, et al. A simplification trial switching from nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors to once-daily fixed-dose abacavir/lamivudine or tenofovir/emtricitabine in HIV-1-infected patients with virological suppression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51:290-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Martin A, Bloch M, Amin J, et al. Simplification of antiretroviral therapy with tenofovir-emtricitabine or abacavir-Lamivudine: a randomized, 96-week trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1591-601.

PubMed Abstract»

Nishijima T, Komatsu H, Teruya K, et al. Once-daily darunavir/ritonavir and abacavir/lamivudine versus tenofovir/emtricitabine for treatment-naïve patients with a baseline viral load of more than 100 000 copies/ml. AIDS. 2013;27:839-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Arasteh K, Górgolas Hernández-Mora M, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine after Oral Induction for HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1124-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, DeJesus E, Ramgopal M, et al. Switching from tenofovir disoproxil fumarate to tenofovir alafenamide coformulated with rilpivirine and emtricitabine in virally suppressed adults with HIV-1 infection: a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, phase 3b, non-inferiority study. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e195-e204.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Molina JM, Negredo E, et al. Efficacy and safety of switching from boosted protease inhibitors plus emtricitabine and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate regimens to single-tablet darunavir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir alafenamide at 48 weeks in adults with virologically suppressed HIV-1 (EMERALD): a phase 3, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e23-e34.

PubMed Abstract»

Rasmussen TA, Jensen D, Tolstrup M, et al. Comparison of bone and renal effects in HIV-infected adults switching to abacavir or tenofovir based therapy in a randomized trial. PLoS One. 2012;7:e32445.

PubMed Abstract»

Rasmussen TA, Tolstrup M, Melchjorsen J, et al. Evaluation of cardiovascular biomarkers in HIV-infected patients switching to abacavir or tenofovir based therapy. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11:267.

PubMed Abstract»

Valantin MA, Bittar R, de Truchis P, et al. Switching the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor backbone to tenofovir disoproxil fumarate + emtricitabine promptly improves triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in dyslipidaemic patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010;65:556-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Valantin MA, Lambert-Niclot S, Flandre P, et al. Long-term efficacy of darunavir/ritonavir monotherapy in patients with HIV-1 viral suppression: week 96 results from the MONOI ANRS 136 study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:691-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Wohl DA, Bhatti L, Small CB, et al. The ASSURE study: HIV-1 suppression is maintained with bone and renal biomarker improvement 48 weeks after ritonavir discontinuation and randomized switch to abacavir/lamivudine + atazanavir. HIV Med. 2016;17:106-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Simplifying Therapy to An Oral Two-Drug Regimen

Achhra AC, Mwasakifwa G, Amin J, Boyd MA. Efficacy and safety of contemporary dual-drug antiretroviral regimens as first-line treatment or as a simplification strategy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet HIV. 2016;3:e351-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Bares SH, Scarsi KK. A new paradigm for antiretroviral delivery: long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine for the treatment and prevention of HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2022;17:22-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Borghetti A, Mondi A, Piccoli B, et al. Switching to lamivudine plus darunavir/r dual therapy in a cohort of treatment-experienced HIV-positive patients: the experience of an Italian centre. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19817.

PubMed Abstract»

Burgos J, Crespo M, Falcó V, et al. Simplification to dual antiretroviral therapy including a ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor in treatment-experienced HIV-1-infected patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:2479-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Calin R, Paris L, Simon A, et al. Dual raltegravir/etravirine combination in virologically suppressed HIV-1-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther. 2012;17:1601-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Calza L, Danese I, Magistrelli E, et al. Dual Raltegravir-Darunavir/Ritonavir Combination in Virologically Suppressed HIV-1-Infected Patients on Antiretroviral Therapy Including a Ritonavir-Boosted Protease Inhibitor Plus Two Nucleoside/Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors. HIV Clin Trials. 2016;17:38-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Casado JL, Bañón S, Rodriguez MA, Moreno A, Moreno S. Efficacy and pharmacokinetics of the combination of etravirine plus raltegravir as novel dual antiretroviral maintenance regimen in HIV-infected patients. Antiviral Res. 2015;113:103-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Christopoulos KA, Grochowski J, Mayorga-Munoz F, et al. First Demonstration Project of Long-Acting Injectable Antiretroviral Therapy for Persons With and Without Detectable Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Viremia in an Urban HIV Clinic. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:e645-e651.

PubMed Abstract»

D'Amico R, Cenoz Gomis S, Moodley R, et al. Compassionate use of long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine for people living with HIV-1 in need of parenteral antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2023;24:202-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Di Giambenedetto S, Fabbiani M, Colafigli M, et al. Safety and feasibility of treatment simplification to atazanavir/ritonavir + lamivudine in HIV-infected patients on stable treatment with two nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors + atazanavir/ritonavir with virological suppression (Atazanavir and Lamivudine for treatment Simplification, AtLaS pilot study). J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68:1364-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Girouard MP, Sax PE, Parker RA, et al. The Cost-effectiveness and Budget Impact of 2-Drug Dolutegravir-Lamivudine Regimens for the Treatment of HIV Infection in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:784-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Jaeger H, Overton ET, Richmond G, et al. Long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine dosed every 2 months in adults with HIV-1 infection (ATLAS-2M), 96-week results: a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3b, non-inferiority study. Lancet HIV. 2021;8:e679-e689.

PubMed Abstract»

Joly V, Burdet C, Landman R, et al. Dolutegravir and lamivudine maintenance therapy in HIV-1 virologically suppressed patients: results of the ANRS 167 trial (LAMIDOL). J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;74:739-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Katlama C, Assoumou L, Valantin MA, et al. Maraviroc plus raltegravir failed to maintain virological suppression in HIV-infected patients with lipohypertrophy: results from the ROCnRAL ANRS 157 study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:1648-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Katlama C, Valantin MA, Algarte-Genin M, et al. Efficacy of darunavir/ritonavir maintenance monotherapy in patients with HIV-1 viral suppression: a randomized open-label, noninferiority trial, MONOI-ANRS 136. AIDS. 2010;24:2365-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Latini A, Fabbiani M, Borghi V, et al. Switching to boosted protease inhibitor plus a second antiretroviral drug (dual therapy) for treatment simplification: a multicenter observational study. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:401.

PubMed Abstract»

Llibre JM, Brites C, Cheng CY, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Switching to the 2-Drug Regimen Dolutegravir/Lamivudine Versus Continuing a 3- or 4-Drug Regimen for Maintaining Virologic Suppression in Adults Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1): Week 48 Results From the Phase 3, Noninferiority SALSA Randomized Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:720-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Llibre JM, Hung CC, Brinson C, et al. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of dolutegravir-rilpivirine for the maintenance of virological suppression in adults with HIV-1: phase 3, randomised, non-inferiority SWORD-1 and SWORD-2 studies. Lancet. 2018;391:839-49.

PubMed Abstract»

Maggiolo F, Gianotti N, Comi L, et al. Rilpivirine plus cobicistat-boosted darunavir as alternative to standard three-drug therapy in HIV-infected, virologically suppressed subjects: Final results of the PROBE 2 trial. Antivir Ther. 2021;26:51-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Margolis DA, Brinson CC, Smith GH, et al. Cabotegravir plus rilpivirine, once a day, after induction with cabotegravir plus nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in antiretroviral-naive adults with HIV-1 infection (LATTE): a randomised, phase 2b, dose-ranging trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:1145-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Margolis DA, Gonzalez-Garcia J, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Long-acting intramuscular cabotegravir and rilpivirine in adults with HIV-1 infection (LATTE-2): 96-week results of a randomised, open-label, phase 2b, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2017;390:1499-1510.

PubMed Abstract»

Mondi A, Fabbiani M, Ciccarelli N, et al. Efficacy and safety of treatment simplification to atazanavir/ritonavir + lamivudine in HIV-infected patients with virological suppression: 144 week follow-up of the AtLaS pilot study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:1843-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Monteiro P, Perez I, Laguno M, et al. Dual therapy with etravirine plus raltegravir for virologically suppressed HIV-infected patients: a pilot study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:742-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Nozza S, Bigoloni A, Calcagno A, et al. Viral rebound after switch to maraviroc/raltegravir dual therapy in highly experienced and virologically suppressed patients with HIV-1 infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:1436-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Arasteh K, Górgolas Hernández-Mora M, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine after Oral Induction for HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1124-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Bernal Morell E, Tan DHS, et al. Initiation of long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine as direct-to-injection or with an oral lead-in in adults with HIV-1 infection: week 124 results of the open-label phase 3 FLAIR study. Lancet HIV. 2021;8:e668-e678.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Oka S, Philibert P, et al. Long-acting cabotegravir plus rilpivirine for treatment in adults with HIV-1 infection: 96-week results of the randomised, open-label, phase 3 FLAIR study. Lancet HIV. 2021;8:e185-e196.

PubMed Abstract»

Osiyemi O, De Wit S, Ajana F, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Switching to Dolutegravir/Lamivudine Versus Continuing a Tenofovir Alafenamide-Based 3- or 4-Drug Regimen for Maintenance of Virologic Suppression in Adults Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1: Results Through Week 144 From the Phase 3, Noninferiority TANGO Randomized Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75:975-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Overton ET, Richmond G, Rizzardini G, et al. Long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine dosed every 2 months in adults with HIV-1 infection (ATLAS-2M), 48-week results: a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3b, non-inferiority study. Lancet. 2021;396:1994-2005.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: optimizing antiretroviral therapy in the setting of virologic suppression. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Perez-Molina JA, Rubio R, Rivero A, et al. Dual treatment with atazanavir-ritonavir plus lamivudine versus triple treatment with atazanavir-ritonavir plus two nucleos(t)ides in virologically stable patients with HIV-1 (SALT): 48 week results from a randomised, open-label, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:775-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Pett SL, Amin J, Horban A, et al. Maraviroc, as a Switch Option, in HIV-1-infected Individuals With Stable, Well-controlled HIV Replication and R5-tropic Virus on Their First Nucleoside/Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Plus Ritonavir-boosted Protease Inhibitor Regimen: Week 48 Results of the Randomized, Multicenter MARCH Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:122-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Spinner CD, Kümmerle T, Schneider J, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Switching to Dolutegravir With Boosted Darunavir in Virologically Suppressed Adults With HIV-1: A Randomized, Open-Label, Multicenter, Phase 3, Noninferiority Trial: The DUALIS Study. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7(9):ofaa356.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterrantino G, Zaccarelli M, Di Biagio A, Biondi ML, Antinori A, Penco G. Darunavir-based dual therapy of treatment-experienced HIV-infected patients: analysis from a national multicenter database. Infection. 2015;43:339-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Andrade-Villanueva JF, Richmond GJ, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine for Maintenance of HIV-1 Suppression. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1112-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Lutz T, Van Zyl L, et al. Week 96 extension results of a Phase 3 study evaluating long-acting cabotegravir with rilpivirine for HIV-1 treatment. AIDS. 2022;36:185-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Taiwo BO, Marconi VC, Berzins B, et al. Dolutegravir Plus Lamivudine Maintains Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Suppression Through Week 48 in a Pilot Randomized Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:1794-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Van den Eynde E, Podzamczer D. Switch strategies in antiretroviral therapy regimens. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2014;12:1055-74.

PubMed Abstract»

van Lunzen J, Pozniak A, Gatell JM, et al. Brief Report: Switch to Ritonavir-Boosted Atazanavir Plus Raltegravir in Virologically Suppressed Patients With HIV-1 Infection: A Randomized Pilot Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;71:538-43.

PubMed Abstract»

van Wyk J, Ajana F, Bisshop F, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Switching to Dolutegravir/Lamivudine Fixed-Dose 2-Drug Regimen vs Continuing a Tenofovir Alafenamide-Based 3- or 4-Drug Regimen for Maintenance of Virologic Suppression in Adults Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1: Phase 3, Randomized, Noninferiority TANGO Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:1920-9.

PubMed Abstract»

van Wyk J, Orkin C, Rubio R, et al. Brief Report: Durable Suppression and Low Rate of Virologic Failure 3 Years After Switch to Dolutegravir + Rilpivirine 2-Drug Regimen: 148-Week Results From the SWORD-1 and SWORD-2 Randomized Clinical Trials. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2020;85:325-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Simplifying Therapy to Injectable Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 4. Switching or Simplifying Antiretroviral Therapy

Simplifying Maintenance Therapy to Monotherapy

Arribas J, Pulido F, Hill A, Delft Yv, Moecklinghoff C. Predictors of long-term HIV RNA suppression on darunavir/ritonavir monotherapy in the MONET trial. Int J STD AIDS. 2013;24:679-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Arribas JR, Clumeck N, Nelson M, Hill A, van Delft Y, Moecklinghoff C. The MONET trial: week 144 analysis of the efficacy of darunavir/ritonavir (DRV/r) monotherapy versus DRV/r plus two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, for patients with viral load < 50 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL at baseline. HIV Med. 2012;13:398-405.

PubMed Abstract»

Arribas JR, Delgado R, Arranz A, et al. Lopinavir-ritonavir monotherapy versus lopinavir-ritonavir and 2 nucleosides for maintenance therapy of HIV: 96-week analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51:147-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Arribas JR, Girard PM, Paton N, et al. Efficacy of protease inhibitor monotherapy vs. triple therapy: meta-analysis of data from 2303 patients in 13 randomized trials. HIV Med. 2016;17:358-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Blanco JL, Rojas J, Paredes R, et al. Dolutegravir-based maintenance monotherapy versus dual therapy with lamivudine: a planned 24 week analysis of the DOLAM randomized clinical trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2018;73:1965-1971.

PubMed Abstract»

Clumeck N, Hill A, Moecklinghoff C. Effects of switching to protease inhibitor monotherapy on nucleoside analogue-related adverse events. AIDS Rev. 2014;16:236-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant J, Sugarman J. Dolutegravir monotherapy: when should clinical practice be clinical research? Antivir Ther. 2017;22:93-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Girard PM, Antinori A, Arribas JR, et al. Week 96 efficacy and safety of darunavir/ritonavir monotherapy vs. darunavir/ritonavir with two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in the PROTEA trial. HIV Med. 2017;18:5-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Lambert-Niclot S, Flandre P, Valantin MA, et al. Resistant minority species are rarely observed in patients on darunavir/ritonavir monotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:1470-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Oldenbuettel C, Wolf E, Ritter A, et al. Dolutegravir monotherapy as treatment de-escalation in HIV-infected adults with virological control: DoluMono cohort results. Antivir Ther. 2017;22:169-172.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: optimizing antiretroviral therapy in the setting of virologic suppression. May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Paton NI, Stöhr W, Arenas-Pinto A, et al. Protease inhibitor monotherapy for long-term management of HIV infection: a randomised, controlled, open-label, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2015;2:e417-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Pinnetti C, Lorenzini P, Cozzi-Lepri A, et al. Randomized trial of DRV/r or LPV/r QD monotherapy vs maintaining a PI/r-based antiretroviral regimen in persons with suppressed HIV replication. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19809.

PubMed Abstract»

Pulido F, Arribas JR, Hill A, Van Delft Y, Moecklinghoff C. Analysis of drug resistance during HIV RNA viraemia in the MONET trial of darunavir/ritonavir monotherapy. Antivir Ther. 2011;16:59-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Stöhr W, Dunn DT, Arenas-Pinto A, et al. Factors associated with virological rebound in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitor monotherapy. AIDS. 2016;30:2617-2624.

PubMed Abstract»

Wijting I, Rokx C, Boucher C, et al. Dolutegravir as maintenance monotherapy for HIV (DOMONO): a phase 2, randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e547-e554.

PubMed Abstract»

Bosch B, Akpomiemie G, Chandiwana N, et al. Weight and Metabolic Changes After Switching From Tenofovir Alafenamide/Emtricitabine (FTC)+Dolutegravir (DTG), Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate (TDF)/FTC + DTG, and TDF/FTC/Efavirenz to TDF/Lamivudine/DTG. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:1492-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Campo RE, Cohen C, Grimm K, Shangguan T, Maa J, Seekins D. Switch from protease inhibitor- to efavirenz-based antiretroviral therapy improves quality of life, treatment satisfaction and adherence with low rates of virological failure in virologically suppressed patients. Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21:166-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Capetti AF, Sterrantino G, Cossu MV, et al. Switch to Dolutegravir plus Rilpivirine Dual Therapy in cART-Experienced Subjects: An Observational Cohort. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0164753.

PubMed Abstract»

Clutter DS, Jordan MR, Bertagnolio S, Shafer RW. HIV-1 drug resistance and resistance testing. Infect Genet Evol. 2016;46:292-307.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen CJ, Molina JM, Cassetti I, et al. Week 96 efficacy and safety of rilpivirine in treatment-naive, HIV-1 patients in two Phase III randomized trials. AIDS. 2013;27:939-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Erickson JW, Gulnik SV, Markowitz M. Protease inhibitors: resistance, cross-resistance, fitness and the choice of initial and salvage therapies. AIDS. 1999;13 Suppl A:S189-204.

PubMed Abstract»

Hodder SL, Mounzer K, Dejesus E, et al. Patient-reported outcomes in virologically suppressed, HIV-1-Infected subjects after switching to a simplified, single-tablet regimen of efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir DF. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2010;24:87-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Huhn GD, Eron JJ, Girard PM, et al. Darunavir/cobicistat/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide in treatment-experienced, virologically suppressed patients with HIV-1: subgroup analyses of the phase 3 EMERALD study. AIDS Res Ther. 2019;16:23.

PubMed Abstract»

Li JZ, Sax PE, Marconi VC, et al. No Significant Changes to Residual Viremia After Switch to Dolutegravir and Lamivudine in a Randomized Trial. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6:ofz056.

PubMed Abstract»

Martínez E, D'Albuquerque PM, Llibre JM, et al. Changes in cardiovascular biomarkers in HIV-infected patients switching from ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors to raltegravir. AIDS. 2012;26:2315-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Nguyen A, Calmy A, Delhumeau C, et al. A randomized cross-over study to compare raltegravir and efavirenz (SWITCH-ER study). AIDS. 2011;25:1481-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Arasteh K, Górgolas Hernández-Mora M, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine after Oral Induction for HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1124-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Palella FJ, Hou Q, Li J, et al. Weight Gain and Metabolic Effects in Persons With HIV Who Switch to ART Regimens Containing Integrase Inhibitors or Tenofovir Alafenamide. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2023;92:67-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Rhee SY, Taylor J, Fessel WJ, et al. HIV-1 protease mutations and protease inhibitor cross-resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:4253-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Saumoy M, Sánchez-Quesada JL, Martínez E, et al. LDL subclasses and lipoprotein-phospholipase A2 activity in suppressed HIV-infected patients switching to raltegravir: Spiral substudy. Atherosclerosis. 2012;225:200-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafer RW, Schapiro JM. HIV-1 drug resistance mutations: an updated framework for the second decade of HAART. AIDS Rev. 2008;10:67-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafer RW. Genotypic testing for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 drug resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15:247-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Andrade-Villanueva JF, Richmond GJ, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine for Maintenance of HIV-1 Suppression. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1112-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Tang MW, Shafer RW. HIV-1 antiretroviral resistance: scientific principles and clinical applications. Drugs. 2012;72:e1-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Young TP, Parkin NT, Stawiski E, et al. Prevalence, mutation patterns, and effects on protease inhibitor susceptibility of the L76V mutation in HIV-1 protease. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:4903-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Introduction

De Luca A, Dunn D, Zazzi M, et al. Declining prevalence of HIV-1 drug resistance in antiretroviral treatment-exposed individuals in Western Europe. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:1216-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurt CB, McCoy SI, Kuruc J, et al. Transmitted antiretroviral drug resistance among acute and recent HIV infections in North Carolina from 1998 to 2007. Antivir Ther. 2009;14:673-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Jain V, Liegler T, Vittinghoff E, et al. Transmitted drug resistance in persons with acute/early HIV-1 in San Francisco, 2002-2009. PLoS One. 2010;5:e15510.

PubMed Abstract»

Little SJ, Holte S, Routy JP, et al. Antiretroviral-drug resistance among patients recently infected with HIV. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:385-94.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Neil PK, Sun G, Yu H, Ron Y, Dougherty JP, Preston BD. Mutational analysis of HIV-1 long terminal repeats to explore the relative contribution of reverse transcriptase and RNA polymerase II to viral mutagenesis. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:38053-61.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: plasma HIV-1 RNA (viral load) and CD4 count monitoring. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: virologic failure. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Perelson AS, Neumann AU, Markowitz M, Leonard JM, Ho DD. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: virion clearance rate, infected cell life-span, and viral generation time. Science. 1996;271:1582-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Poon AF, Aldous JL, Mathews WC, et al. Transmitted drug resistance in the CFAR network of integrated clinical systems cohort: prevalence and effects on pre-therapy CD4 and viral load. PLoS One. 2011;6:e21189.

PubMed Abstract»

Ross L, Lim ML, Liao Q, et al. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance and resistance-associated mutations in antiretroviral therapy-naïve HIV-infected individuals from 40 United States cities. HIV Clin Trials. 2007;8:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Weinstock HS, Zaidi I, Heneine W, et al. The epidemiology of antiretroviral drug resistance among drug-naive HIV-1-infected persons in 10 US cities. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:2174-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2015 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2015;23:132-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheeler WH, Ziebell RA, Zabina H, et al. Prevalence of transmitted drug resistance associated mutations and HIV-1 subtypes in new HIV-1 diagnoses, U.S.-2006. AIDS. 2010;24:1203-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Definition of Terms Related to Virologic Responses

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: virologic failure. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Causes of Virologic Failure

Kraft CS, Binongo JN, Burd EM, et al. Successful use of Plasma Preparation Tubes™ (PPTs) in the COBAS® AmpliPrep/COBAS® TaqMan® HIV-1 test. J Clin Virol. 2013;57:77-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Kran AM, Jonassen TØ, Sannes M, et al. Overestimation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 load caused by the presence of cells in plasma from plasma preparation tubes. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:2170-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: virologic failure. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Rebeiro PF, Kheshti A, Bebawy SS, et al. Increased detectability of plasma HIV-1 RNA after introduction of a new assay and altered specimen-processing procedures. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:1354-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Stosor V, Palella FJ Jr, Berzins B, et al. Transient viremia in HIV-infected patients and use of plasma preparation tubes. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1671-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Wan H, Seth A, Rainen L, Fernandes H. Coamplification of HIV-1 proviral DNA and viral RNA in assays used for quantification of HIV-1 RNA. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48:2186-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Approach to Detectable HIV RNA Levels

Doyle T, Smith C, Vitiello P, et al. Plasma HIV-1 RNA detection below 50 copies/ml and risk of virologic rebound in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:724-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Farmer A, Wang X, Ganesan A, et al. Factors associated with HIV viral load "blips" and the relationship between self-reported adherence and efavirenz blood levels on blip occurrence: a case-control study. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:16.

PubMed Abstract»

Gandhi RT, Deeks SG. Plasma HIV-1 RNA levels during antiretroviral therapy: how low is low enough? Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:733-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Grennan JT, Loutfy MR, Su D, et al. Magnitude of virologic blips is associated with a higher risk for virologic rebound in HIV-infected individuals: a recurrent events analysis. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:1230-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Halvas EK, Joseph KW, Brandt LD, et al. HIV-1 viremia not suppressible by antiretroviral therapy can originate from large T cell clones producing infectious virus. J Clin Invest. 2020;130:5847-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Havlir DV, Bassett R, Levitan D, et al. Prevalence and predictive value of intermittent viremia with combination hiv therapy. JAMA. 2001;286:171-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller LG, Golin CE, Liu H, et al. No evidence of an association between transient HIV viremia ("Blips") and lower adherence to the antiretroviral medication regimen. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1487-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Nettles RE, Kieffer TL, Kwon P, et al. Intermittent HIV-1 viremia (Blips) and drug resistance in patients receiving HAART. JAMA. 2005;293:817-29.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: virologic failure. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Podsadecki TJ, Vrijens BC, Tousset EP, Rode RA, Hanna GJ. Decreased adherence to antiretroviral therapy observed prior to transient human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viremia. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:1773-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryscavage P, Kelly S, Li JZ, Harrigan PR, Taiwo B. Significance and clinical management of persistent low-level viremia and very-low-level viremia in HIV-1-infected patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:3585-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Sklar PA, Ward DJ, Baker RK, et al. Prevalence and clinical correlates of HIV viremia ('blips') in patients with previous suppression below the limits of quantification. AIDS. 2002;16:2035-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Swenson LC, Min JE, Woods CK, et al. HIV drug resistance detected during low-level viraemia is associated with subsequent virologic failure. AIDS. 2014;28:1125-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Taiwo B, Bosch RJ. More reasons to reexamine the definition of viral blip during antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:1189-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Wirden M, Todesco E, Valantin MA, et al. Low-level HIV-1 viraemia in patients on HAART: risk factors and management in clinical practice. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:2347-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

HIV Drug Resistance Assays

Bester SM, Adu-Ampratwum D, Annamalai AS, et al. Structural and Mechanistic Bases of Viral Resistance to HIV-1 Capsid Inhibitor Lenacapavir. mBio. 2022;13:e0180422.

PubMed Abstract»

Capobianchi MR, Giombini E, Rozera G. Next-generation sequencing technology in clinical virology. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013;19:15-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Chabria SB, Gupta S, Kozal MJ. Deep sequencing of HIV: clinical and research applications. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet. 2014;15:295-325.

PubMed Abstract»

Delaugerre C, Braun J, Charreau I, et al. Comparison of resistance mutation patterns in historical plasma HIV RNA genotypes with those in current proviral HIV DNA genotypes among extensively treated patients with suppressed replication. HIV Med. 2012;13:517-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Derache A, Shin HS, Balamane M, et al. HIV drug resistance mutations in proviral DNA from a community treatment program. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0117430.

PubMed Abstract»

Devereux HL, Loveday C, Youle M, Sabin CA, Burke A, Johnson M. Substantial correlation between HIV type 1 drug-associated resistance mutations in plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in treatment-experienced patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2000;16:1025-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Hanna GJ, D'Aquila RT. Clinical use of genotypic and phenotypic drug resistance testing to monitor antiretroviral chemotherapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:774-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Hirsch MS, Günthard HF, Schapiro JM, et al. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adult HIV-1 infection: 2008 recommendations of an International AIDS Society-USA panel. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:266-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Kozal MJ, Chiarella J, St John EP, et al. Prevalence of low-level HIV-1 variants with reverse transcriptase mutation K65R and the effect of antiretroviral drug exposure on variant levels. Antivir Ther. 2011;16:925-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Lambert-Niclot S, Allavena C, Grude M, et al. Usefulness of an HIV DNA resistance genotypic test in patients who are candidates for a switch to the rilpivirine/emtricitabine/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate combination. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:2248-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Metzner KJ, Giulieri SG, Knoepfel SA, et al. Minority quasispecies of drug-resistant HIV-1 that lead to early therapy failure in treatment-naive and -adherent patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:239-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Porter DP, Toma J, Tan Y, et al. Clinical Outcomes of Virologically-Suppressed Patients with Pre-existing HIV-1 Drug Resistance Mutations Switching to Rilpivirine/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate in the SPIRIT Study. HIV Clin Trials. 2016;17:29-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Segal-Maurer S, DeJesus E, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Capsid Inhibition with Lenacapavir in Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1793-1803.

PubMed Abstract»

Simen BB, Simons JF, Hullsiek KH, et al. Low-abundance drug-resistant viral variants in chronically HIV-infected, antiretroviral treatment-naive patients significantly impact treatment outcomes. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:693-701.

PubMed Abstract»

Swenson LC, Chui CK, Brumme CJ, et al. Genotypic analysis of the V3 region of HIV from virologic nonresponders to maraviroc-containing regimens reveals distinct patterns of failure. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:6122-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Swenson LC, Dong WW, Mo T, et al. Use of cellular HIV DNA to predict virologic response to maraviroc: performance of population-based and deep sequencing. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1659-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Turriziani O, Andreoni M, Antonelli G. Resistant viral variants in cellular reservoirs of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2010;16:1518-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Wirden M, Soulie C, Valantin MA, et al. Historical HIV-RNA resistance test results are more informative than proviral DNA genotyping in cases of suppressed or residual viraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:709-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Indications for HIV Drug-Resistance Testing

Deeks SG, Wrin T, Liegler T et al. Virologic and immunologic consequences of discontinuing combination antiretroviral-drug therapy in HIV-infected patients with detectable viremia. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:472-480.

PubMed Abstract»

Devereux HL, Youle M, Johnson MA, Loveday C. Rapid decline in detectability of HIV-1 drug resistance mutations after stopping therapy. AIDS. 1999;13:F123-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Gonzalez-Serna A, Min JE, Woods C, et al. Performance of HIV-1 drug resistance testing at low-level viremia and its ability to predict future virologic outcomes and viral evolution in treatment-naive individuals. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1165-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurt CB, McCoy SI, Kuruc J, et al. Transmitted antiretroviral drug resistance among acute and recent HIV infections in North Carolina from 1998 to 2007. Antivir Ther. 2009;14:673-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Jain V, Liegler T, Vittinghoff E, et al. Transmitted drug resistance in persons with acute/early HIV-1 in San Francisco, 2002-2009. PLoS One. 2010;5:e15510.

PubMed Abstract»

Little SJ, Holte S, Routy JP, et al. Antiretroviral-drug resistance among patients recently infected with HIV. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:385-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Naeger LK, Struble KA. Effect of baseline protease genotype and phenotype on HIV response to atazanavir/ritonavir in treatment-experienced patients. AIDS. 2006;20:847-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Novak RM, Chen L, MacArthur RD, et al. Prevalence of antiretroviral drug resistance mutations in chronically HIV-infected, treatment-naive patients: implications for routine resistance screening before initiation of antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:468-74.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: virologic failure. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Islam R, Walensky RP, et al. Should resistance testing be performed for treatment-naive HIV-infected patients? A cost-effectiveness analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1316-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Swenson LC, Min JE, Woods CK, et al. HIV drug resistance detected during low-level viraemia is associated with subsequent virologic failure. AIDS. 2014;28:1125-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Verhofstede C, Wanzeele FV, Van Der Gucht B, De Cabooter N, Plum J. Interruption of reverse transcriptase inhibitors or a switch from reverse transcriptase to protease inhibitors resulted in a fast reappearance of virus strains with a reverse transcriptase inhibitor-sensitive genotype. AIDS. 1999;13:2541-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Weinstock HS, Zaidi I, Heneine W, et al. The epidemiology of antiretroviral drug resistance among drug-naive HIV-1-infected persons in 10 US cities. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:2174-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheeler WH, Ziebell RA, Zabina H, et al. Prevalence of transmitted drug resistance associated mutations and HIV-1 subtypes in new HIV-1 diagnoses, U.S.-2006. AIDS. 2010;24:1203-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Interpretation of Drug-Resistance Assays

PubMed Abstract»

Finzi D, Blankson J, Sliciano JD, et al. Latent infection of CD4+ T cells provides a mechanism for lifelong persistence of HIV-1, even in patients on effective combination therapy. Nat Med. 1999;5:512-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant JE. The M184V mutation: what it does, how to prevent it, and what to do with it when it's there. AIDS Read. 2006;16:556-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hanna GJ, D'Aquila RT. Clinical use of genotypic and phenotypic drug resistance testing to monitor antiretroviral chemotherapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:774-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Turner D, Brenner BG, Routy JP, Petrella M, Wainberg MA. Rationale for maintenance of the M184v resistance mutation in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase in treatment experienced patients. New Microbiol. 2004;27(2 Suppl 1):31-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Wolf K, Walter H, Beerenwinkel N, et al. Tenofovir resistance and resensitization. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:3478-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Resistance

Beerenwinkel N, Däumer M, Sing T, et al. Estimating HIV evolutionary pathways and the genetic barrier to drug resistance. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1953-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Castagna A, Danise A, Menzo S, et al. Lamivudine monotherapy in HIV-1-infected patients harbouring a lamivudine-resistant virus: a randomized pilot study (E-184V study). AIDS. 2006;20:795-803.

PubMed Abstract»

Clavel F, Hance AJ. HIV drug resistance. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1023-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Deval J, Courcambeck J, Selmi B, Boretto J, Canard B. Structural determinants and molecular mechanisms for the resistance of HIV-1 RT to nucleoside analogues. Curr Drug Metab. 2004;5:305-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Eron JJ, Benoit SL, Jemsek J, et al. Treatment with lamivudine, zidovudine, or both in HIV-positive patients with 200 to 500 CD4+ cells per cubic millimeter. North American HIV Working Party. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1662-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant JE, Rodriguez AE, Weinberg WG, et al. Early virologic nonresponse to tenofovir, abacavir, and lamivudine in HIV-infected antiretroviral-naive subjects. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:1921-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta R, Hill A, Sawyer AW, Pillay D. Emergence of drug resistance in HIV type 1-infected patients after receipt of first-line highly active antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review of clinical trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:712-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Hu Z, Giguel F, Hatano H, Reid P, Lu J, Kuritzkes DR. Fitness comparison of thymidine analog resistance pathways in human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 2006;80:7020-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Keulen W, Back NK, van Wijk A, Boucher CA, Berkhout B. Initial appearance of the 184Ile variant in lamivudine-treated patients is caused by the mutational bias of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase. J Virol. 1997;71:3346-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Kulkarni R, Babaoglu K, Lansdon EB, et al. The HIV-1 reverse transcriptase M184I mutation enhances the E138K-associated resistance to rilpivirine and decreases viral fitness. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;59:47-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Lanier ER, Givens N, Stone C, et al. Effect of concurrent zidovudine use on the resistance pathway selected by abacavir-containing regimens. HIV Med. 2004;5:394-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Lengauer T, Sing T. Bioinformatics-assisted anti-HIV therapy. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2006;4:790-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Ly JK, Margot NA, MacArthur HL, Hung M, Miller MD, White KL. The balance between NRTI discrimination and excision drives the susceptibility of HIV-1 RT mutants K65R, M184V and K65r+M184V. Antivir Chem Chemother. 2007;18:307-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Marcelin AG, Delaugerre C, Wirden M, et al. Thymidine analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors resistance mutations profiles and association to other nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors resistance mutations observed in the context of virological failure. J Med Virol. 2004;72:162-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Margot NA, Liu Y, Miller MD, Callebaut C. High resistance barrier to tenofovir alafenamide is driven by higher loading of tenofovir diphosphate into target cells compared to tenofovir disoproxil fumarate. Antiviral Res. 2016;132:50-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Melikian GL, Rhee SY, Taylor J, et al. Standardized comparison of the relative impacts of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) mutations on nucleoside RT inhibitor susceptibility. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:2305-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Meyer PR, Matsuura SE, Mian AM, So AG, Scott WA. A mechanism of AZT resistance: an increase in nucleotide-dependent primer unblocking by mutant HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Mol Cell. 1999;4:35-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller MD. K65R, TAMs and tenofovir. AIDS Rev. 2004;6:22-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller V, Larder BA. Mutational patterns in the HIV genome and cross-resistance following nucleoside and nucleotide analogue drug exposure. Antivir Ther. 2001;6 Suppl 3:25-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyle G. Resistance and cross-resistance to abacavir. HIV Med. 2001;2:154-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Parikh UM, Bacheler L, Koontz D, Mellors JW. The K65R mutation in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase exhibits bidirectional phenotypic antagonism with thymidine analog mutations. J Virol. 2006;80:4971-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Parikh UM, Zelina S, Sluis-Cremer N, Mellors JW. Molecular mechanisms of bidirectional antagonism between K65R and thymidine analog mutations in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. AIDS. 2007;21:1405-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Petrella M, Wainberg MA. Might the M184V substitution in HIV-1 RT confer clinical benefit? AIDS Rev. 2002;4:224-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Ross L, Parkin N, Chappey C, et al. Phenotypic impact of HIV reverse transcriptase M184I/V mutations in combination with single thymidine analog mutations on nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor resistance. AIDS. 2004 Aug;18:1691-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Schauer G, Leuba S, Sluis-Cremer N. Biophysical Insights into the Inhibitory Mechanism of Non-Nucleoside HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors. Biomolecules. 2013;3:889-904.

PubMed Abstract»

Scherrer AU, von Wyl V, Götte M, et al. Polymorphic mutations associated with the emergence of the multinucleoside/tide resistance mutations 69 insertion and Q151M. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;59:105-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafer RW, Schapiro JM. HIV-1 drug resistance mutations: an updated framework for the second decade of HAART. AIDS Rev. 2008;10:67-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh K, Marchand B, Kirby KA, Michailidis E, Sarafianos SG. Structural Aspects of Drug Resistance and Inhibition of HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase. Viruses. 2010;2:606-638.

PubMed Abstract»

Sluis-Cremer N, Sheen CW, Zelina S, Torres PS, Parikh UM, Mellors JW. Molecular mechanism by which the K70E mutation in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase confers resistance to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51:48-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Sluis-Cremer N, Wainberg MA, Schinazi RF. Resistance to reverse transcriptase inhibitors used in the treatment and prevention of HIV-1 infection. Future Microbiol. 2015;10:1773-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Tang MW, Shafer RW. HIV-1 antiretroviral resistance: scientific principles and clinical applications. Drugs. 2012;72:e1-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Trignetti M, Sing T, Svicher V, et al. Dynamics of NRTI resistance mutations during therapy interruption. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2009;25:57-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Tu X, Das K, Han Q, et al. Structural basis of HIV-1 resistance to AZT by excision. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2010;17:1202-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Wang J, Li D, Bambara RA, Yang H, Dykes C. L74V increases the reverse transcriptase content of HIV-1 virions with non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase drug-resistant mutations L100I+K103N and K101E+G190S, which results in increased fitness. J Gen Virol. 2013;94:1597-607.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Whitcomb JM, Parkin NT, Chappey C, Hellmann NS, Petropoulos CJ. Broad nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor cross-resistance in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clinical isolates. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:992-1000.

PubMed Abstract»

White KL, Chen JM, Margot NA, et al. Molecular mechanisms of tenofovir resistance conferred by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase containing a diserine insertion after residue 69 and multiple thymidine analog-associated mutations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:992-1003.

PubMed Abstract»

White KL, Margot NA, Wrin T, Petropoulos CJ, Miller MD, Naeger LK. Molecular mechanisms of resistance to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with reverse transcriptase mutations K65R and K65R+M184V and their effects on enzyme function and viral replication capacity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46:3437-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Winters MA, Coolley KL, Girard YA, et al. A 6-basepair insert in the reverse transcriptase gene of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 confers resistance to multiple nucleoside inhibitors. J Clin Invest. 1998;102:1769-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor Resistance

Antinori A, Zaccarelli M, Cingolani A, et al. Cross-resistance among nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors limits recycling efavirenz after nevirapine failure. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2002;18:835-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bacheler L, Jeffrey S, Hanna G, et al. Genotypic correlates of phenotypic resistance to efavirenz in virus isolates from patients failing nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy. J Virol. 2001;75:4999-5008.

PubMed Abstract»

Briones C, Soriano V, Dona C, Barreiro P, Gonzalez-Lahoz J. Can early failure with nevirapine be rescued with efavirenz? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;24:76-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Casado JL, Moreno A, Hertogs K, Dronda F, Moreno S. Extent and importance of cross-resistance to efavirenz after nevirapine failure. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2002;18:771-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Clavel F, Hance AJ. HIV drug resistance. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1023-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Colombier MA, Molina JM. Doravirine: a review. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:308-314.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG. International perspectives on antiretroviral resistance. Nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor resistance. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;26 Suppl 1:S25-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Delaugerre C, Rohban R, Simon A, et al. Resistance profile and cross-resistance of HIV-1 among patients failing a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-containing regimen. J Med Virol. 2001;65:445-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Demeter LM, Shafer RW, Meehan PM, et al. Delavirdine susceptibilities and associated reverse transcriptase mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates from patients in a phase I/II trial of delavirdine monotherapy (ACTG 260). Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:794-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Feng M, Sachs NA, Xu M, et al. Doravirine Suppresses Common Nonnucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor-Associated Mutants at Clinically Relevant Concentrations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016;60:2241-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Feng M, Wang D, Grobler JA, Hazuda DJ, Miller MD, Lai MT. In vitro resistance selection with doravirine (MK-1439), a novel nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor with distinct mutation development pathways. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:590-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallien S, Charreau I, Nere ML, et al. Archived HIV-1 DNA resistance mutations to rilpivirine and etravirine in successfully treated HIV-1-infected individuals pre-exposed to efavirenz or nevirapine. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:562-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Hanna GJ, Johnson VA, Kuritzkes DR, et al. Patterns of resistance mutations selected by treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection with zidovudine, didanosine, and nevirapine. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:904-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Llibre JM, Schapiro JM, Clotet B. Clinical implications of genotypic resistance to the newer antiretroviral drugs in HIV-1-infected patients with virological failure. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:872-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Melikian GL, Rhee SY, Varghese V, et al. Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) cross-resistance: implications for preclinical evaluation of novel NNRTIs and clinical genotypic resistance testing. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:12-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Richman DD, Havlir D, Corbeil J, et al. Nevirapine resistance mutations of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 selected during therapy. J Virol. 1994;68:1660-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Riddler SA, Haubrich R, DiRienzo AG, et al. Class-sparing regimens for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2095-106.

PubMed Abstract»

Rimsky L, Van Eygen V, Hoogstoel A, et al. 96-Week resistance analyses of rilpivirine in treatment-naive, HIV-1-infected adults from the ECHO and THRIVE Phase III trials. Antivir Ther. 2013;18:967-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Rokx C, Verbon A, Rijnders BJ. Successful switch to rilpivirine/tenofovir/emtricitabine in HIV-1-infected patients with an isolated K103N mutation acquired during prior nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy. HIV Med. 2014;15:611-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Rossotti R, Fonte L, Meini G, Maggiolo F, Zazzi M, Rusconi S. Rilpivirine resistance and the dangerous liaisons with substitutions at position 184 among patients infected with HIV-1: analysis from a national drug-resistance database (ARCA). J Med Virol. 2014;86:1459-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Schauer G, Leuba S, Sluis-Cremer N. Biophysical Insights into the Inhibitory Mechanism of Non-Nucleoside HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors. Biomolecules. 2013;3:889-904.

PubMed Abstract»

Shulman NS, Zolopa AR, Passaro DJ, et al. Efavirenz- and adefovir dipivoxil-based salvage therapy in highly treatment-experienced patients: clinical and genotypic predictors of virologic response. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;23:221-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh K, Marchand B, Kirby KA, Michailidis E, Sarafianos SG. Structural Aspects of Drug Resistance and Inhibition of HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase. Viruses. 2010;2:606-638.

PubMed Abstract»

Sluis-Cremer N. The emerging profile of cross-resistance among the nonnucleoside HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Viruses. 2014;6:2960-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Tambuyzer L, Nijs S, Daems B, Picchio G, Vingerhoets J. Effect of mutations at position E138 in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase on phenotypic susceptibility and virologic response to etravirine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:18-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Vingerhoets J, Nijs S, Tambuyzer L, Hoogstoel A, Anderson D, Picchio G. Similar predictions of etravirine sensitivity regardless of genotypic testing method used: comparison of available scoring systems. Antivir Ther. 2012;17:1571-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Vingerhoets J, Tambuyzer L, Azijn H, et al. Resistance profile of etravirine: combined analysis of baseline genotypic and phenotypic data from the randomized, controlled Phase III clinical studies. AIDS. 2010;24:503-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Xu HT, Asahchop EL, Oliveira M, et al. Compensation by the E138K mutation in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase for deficits in viral replication capacity and enzyme processivity associated with the M184I/V mutations. J Virol. 2011;85:11300-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Xu HT, Colby-Germinario SP, Asahchop EL, et al. Effect of mutations at position E138 in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and their interactions with the M184I mutation on defining patterns of resistance to nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors rilpivirine and etravirine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:3100-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Xu HT, Colby-Germinario SP, Huang W, et al. Role of the K101E substitution in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase in resistance to rilpivirine and other nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:5649-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitor Resistance

Anstett K, Mesplede T, Oliveira M, Cutillas V, Wainberg MA. Dolutegravir resistance mutation R263K cannot coexist in combination with many classical integrase inhibitor resistance substitutions. J Virol. 2015;89:4681-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Blanco JL, Varghese V, Rhee SY, Gatell JM, Shafer RW. HIV-1 integrase inhibitor resistance and its clinical implications. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:1204-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Brenner BG, Wainberg MA. Clinical benefit of dolutegravir in HIV-1 management related to the high genetic barrier to drug resistance. Virus Res. 2017;239:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Pozniak AL, Mingrone H, et al. Dolutegravir versus raltegravir in antiretroviral-experienced, integrase-inhibitor-naive adults with HIV: week 48 results from the randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority SAILING study. Lancet. 2013;382:700-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Cardoso M, Baptista T, Diogo I, et al. Two cases of dolutegravir failure with R263K mutation. AIDS. 2018;32:2639-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Castagna A, Maggiolo F, Penco G, et al. Dolutegravir in antiretroviral-experienced patients with raltegravir- and/or elvitegravir-resistant HIV-1: 24-week results of the phase III VIKING-3 study. J Infect Dis. 2014;210:354-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Cevik M, Orkin C, Sax PE. Emergent Resistance to Dolutegravir Among INSTI-Naïve Patients on First-line or Second-line Antiretroviral Therapy: A Review of Published Cases. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7:ofaa202.

PubMed Abstract»

Delelis O, Thierry S, Subra F, et al. Impact of Y143 HIV-1 integrase mutations on resistance to raltegravir in vitro and in vivo. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:491-501.

PubMed Abstract»

Fourati S, Charpentier C, Amiel C, et al. Cross-resistance to elvitegravir and dolutegravir in 502 patients failing on raltegravir: a French national study of raltegravir-experienced HIV-1-infected patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:1507-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Fulcher JA, Du Y, Zhang TH, Sun R, Landovitz RJ. Emergence of Integrase Resistance Mutations During Initial Therapy Containing Dolutegravir. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:791-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallien S, Delaugerre C, Charreau I, et al. Emerging integrase inhibitor resistance mutations in raltegravir-treated HIV-1-infected patients with low-level viremia. AIDS. 2011;25:665-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Garrido C, Villacian J, Zahonero N, et al. Broad phenotypic cross-resistance to elvitegravir in HIV-infected patients failing on raltegravir-containing regimens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:2873-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Goethals O, Clayton R, Van Ginderen M, et al. Resistance mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 integrase selected with elvitegravir confer reduced susceptibility to a wide range of integrase inhibitors. J Virol. 2008;82:10366-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Hardy I, Brenner B, Quashie P, et al. Evolution of a novel pathway leading to dolutegravir resistance in a patient harbouring N155H and multiclass drug resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:405-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Hatano H, Lampiris H, Fransen S, et al. Evolution of integrase resistance during failure of integrase inhibitor-based antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;54:389-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurt CB, McCoy SI, Kuruc J, et al. Transmitted antiretroviral drug resistance among acute and recent HIV infections in North Carolina from 1998 to 2007. Antivir Ther. 2009;14:673-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurt CB, Sebastian J, Hicks CB, Eron JJ. Resistance to HIV integrase strand transfer inhibitors among clinical specimens in the United States, 2009-2012. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:423-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Lübke N, Jensen B, Hüttig F, et al. Failure of Dolutegravir First-Line ART with Selection of Virus Carrying R263K and G118R. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:887-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Malet I, Delelis O, Valantin MA, et al. Mutations associated with failure of raltegravir treatment affect integrase sensitivity to the inhibitor in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:1351-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Malet I, Gimferrer Arriaga L, Artese A, et al. New raltegravir resistance pathways induce broad cross-resistance to all currently used integrase inhibitors. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:2118-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Malet I, Thierry E, Wirden M, et al. Combination of two pathways involved in raltegravir resistance confers dolutegravir resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:2870-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Mbisa JL, Martin SA, Cane PA. Patterns of resistance development with integrase inhibitors in HIV. Infect Drug Resist. 2011;4:65-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Munir S, Thierry E, Malet I, et al. G118R and F121Y mutations identified in patients failing raltegravir treatment confer dolutegravir resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:739-49.

PubMed Abstract»

Oliveira M, Ibanescu RI, Anstett K, et al. Selective resistance profiles emerging in patient-derived clinical isolates with cabotegravir, bictegravir, dolutegravir, and elvitegravir. Retrovirology. 2018;15:56.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Arasteh K, Górgolas Hernández-Mora M, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine after Oral Induction for HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1124-35.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pena MJ, Chueca N, D'Avolio A, Zarzalejos JM, Garcia F. Virological Failure in HIV to Triple Therapy With Dolutegravir-Based Firstline Treatment: Rare but Possible. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6:ofy332.

PubMed Abstract»

Pham HT, Labrie L, Wijting IEA, et al. The S230R Integrase Substitution Associated With Virus Load Rebound During Dolutegravir Monotherapy Confers Low-Level Resistance to Integrase Strand-Transfer Inhibitors. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:698-706.

PubMed Abstract»

Pommier Y, Johnson AA, Marchand C. Integrase inhibitors to treat HIV/AIDS. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2005;4:236-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Singhroy DN, Wainberg MA, Mesplède T. Combination of the R263K and M184I/V resistance substitutions against dolutegravir and lamivudine decreases HIV replicative capacity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:2882-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith SJ, Zhao XZ, Burke TR Jr, Hughes SH. Efficacies of Cabotegravir and Bictegravir against drug-resistant HIV-1 integrase mutants. Retrovirology. 2018;15:37.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Andrade-Villanueva JF, Richmond GJ, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine for Maintenance of HIV-1 Suppression. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1112-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Wesenbeeck L, Rondelez E, Feyaerts M, et al. Cross-resistance profile determination of two second-generation HIV-1 integrase inhibitors using a panel of recombinant viruses derived from raltegravir-treated clinical isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:321-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Wainberg MA, Han YS. HIV-1 resistance to dolutegravir: update and new insights. J Virus Erad. 2015;1:13-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Wainberg MA, Han YS. Will drug resistance against dolutegravir in initial therapy ever occur? Front Pharmacol. 2015;6:90.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Wijting IEA, Lungu C, Rijnders BJA, et al. HIV-1 Resistance Dynamics in Patients With Virologic Failure to Dolutegravir Maintenance Monotherapy. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:688-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Zhao AV, Crutchley RD, Guduru RC, Ton K, Lam T, Min AC. A clinical review of HIV integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) for the prevention and treatment of HIV-1 infection. Retrovirology. 2022;19:22.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Protease Inhibitor Resistance

Cahn P, Fourie J, Grinsztein B et al. Week 48 analysis of once-daily vs. twice daily darunavir/ritonavir in treatment-experienced HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 2011; 25:929-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Chandwani A, Shuter J. Lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of HIV-1 infection: a review. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2008;4:1023-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Clutter DS, Jordan MR, Bertagnolio S, Shafer RW. HIV-1 drug resistance and resistance testing. Infect Genet Evol. 2016;46:292-307.

PubMed Abstract»

De Meyer S, Azijn H, Surleraux D, et al. TMC114, a novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease inhibitor active against protease inhibitor-resistant viruses, including a broad range of clinical isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49:2314-21.

PubMed Abstract»

de Meyer S, Vangeneugden T, van Baelen B, et al. Resistance profile of darunavir: combined 24-week results from the POWER trials. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2008;24:379-88.

PubMed Abstract»

De Meyer SM, Spinosa-Guzman S, Vangeneugden TJ, de Béthune MP, Miralles GD. Efficacy of once-daily darunavir/ritonavir 800/100 mg in HIV-infected, treatment-experienced patients with no baseline resistance-associated mutations to darunavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49:179-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Kempf DJ, Isaacson JD, King MS, et al. Analysis of the virological response with respect to baseline viral phenotype and genotype in protease inhibitor-experienced HIV-1-infected patients receiving lopinavir/ritonavir therapy. Antivir Ther. 2002;7:165-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Kempf DJ, Isaacson JD, King MS, et al. Identification of genotypic changes in human immunodeficiency virus protease that correlate with reduced susceptibility to the protease inhibitor lopinavir among viral isolates from protease inhibitor-experienced patients. J Virol. 2001;75:7462-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Lambert-Niclot S, George EC, Pozniak A, et al. Antiretroviral resistance at virological failure in the NEAT 001/ANRS 143 trial: raltegravir plus darunavir/ritonavir or tenofovir/emtricitabine plus darunavir/ritonavir as first-line ART. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016;71:1056-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Lathouwers E, De La Rosa G, Van de Casteele T, et al. Virological analysis of once-daily and twice-daily darunavir/ritonavir in the ODIN trial of treatment-experienced patients. Antivir Ther. 2013;18:289-300.

PubMed Abstract»

Lathouwers E, De Meyer S, Dierynck I, et al. Virological characterization of patients failing darunavir/ritonavir or lopinavir/ritonavir treatment in the ARTEMIS study: 96-week analysis. Antivir Ther. 2011;16:99-108.

PubMed Abstract»

Lathouwers E, Gupta S, Haddad M, Paquet A, de Meyer S, Baugh B. Trends in darunavir resistance-associated mutations and phenotypic resistance in commercially tested United States clinical samples between 2006 and 2012. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2015;31:628-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Mitsuya Y, Liu TF, Rhee SY, Fessel WJ, Shafer RW. Prevalence of darunavir resistance-associated mutations: patterns of occurrence and association with past treatment. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:1177-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mo H, King MS, King K, Molla A, Brun S, Kempf DJ. Selection of resistance in protease inhibitor-experienced, human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected subjects failing lopinavir- and ritonavir-based therapy: mutation patterns and baseline correlates. J Virol. 2005;79:3329-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Paulsen D, Liao Q, Fusco G, St Clair M, Shaefer M, Ross L. Genotypic and phenotypic cross-resistance patterns to lopinavir and amprenavir in protease inhibitor-experienced patients with HIV viremia. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2002;18:1011-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Pozniak A, Opravil M, Beatty G, Hill A, de Béthune MP, Lefebvre E. Effect of baseline viral susceptibility on response to darunavir/ritonavir versus control protease inhibitors in treatment-experienced HIV type 1-infected patients: POWER 1 and 2. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2008;24:1275-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Rabi SA, Laird GM, Durand CM, et al. Multi-step inhibition explains HIV-1 protease inhibitor pharmacodynamics and resistance. J Clin Invest. 2013;123:3848-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafer RW, Schapiro JM. HIV-1 drug resistance mutations: an updated framework for the second decade of HAART. AIDS Rev. 2008;10:67-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Tang MW, Shafer RW. HIV-1 antiretroviral resistance: scientific principles and clinical applications. Drugs. 2012;72:e1-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Entry Inhibitor Resistance

Deeks SG, Lu J, Hoh R, et al. Interruption of enfuvirtide in HIV-1 infected adults with incomplete viral suppression on an enfuvirtide-based regimen. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:387-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Esté JA, Telenti A. HIV entry inhibitors. Lancet. 2007;370:81-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Gartland M, Cahn P, DeJesus E, et al. Week 96 Genotypic and Phenotypic Results of the Fostemsavir Phase 3 BRIGHTE Study in Heavily Treatment-Experienced Adults Living with Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2022;66:e0175121.

PubMed Abstract»

Kilby JM, Eron JJ. Novel therapies based on mechanisms of HIV-1 cell entry. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2228-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Lataillade M, Zhou N, Joshi SR, et al. Viral Drug Resistance Through 48 Weeks, in a Phase 2b, Randomized, Controlled Trial of the HIV-1 Attachment Inhibitor Prodrug, Fostemsavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;77:299-307.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Roche M, Salimi H, Duncan R, et al. A common mechanism of clinical HIV-1 resistance to the CCR5 antagonist maraviroc despite divergent resistance levels and lack of common gp120 resistance mutations. Retrovirology. 2013;10:43.

PubMed Abstract»

Rose R, Gartland M, Li Z, et al. Clinical evidence for a lack of cross-resistance between temsavir and ibalizumab or maraviroc. AIDS. 2022;36:11-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafer RW, Schapiro JM. HIV-1 drug resistance mutations: an updated framework for the second decade of HAART. AIDS Rev. 2008;10:67-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Swenson LC, Dong WW, Mo T, et al. Use of cellular HIV DNA to predict virologic response to maraviroc: performance of population-based and deep sequencing. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1659-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Trkola A, Kuhmann SE, Strizki JM, et al. HIV-1 escape from a small molecule, CCR5-specific entry inhibitor does not involve CXCR4 use. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99:395-400.

PubMed Abstract»

Wensing AM, Calvez V, Günthard HF, et al. 2017 Update of the Drug Resistance Mutations in HIV-1. Top Antivir Med. 2017;24:132-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Westby M, Lewis M, Whitcomb J, et al. Emergence of CXCR4-using human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) variants in a minority of HIV-1-infected patients following treatment with the CCR5 antagonist maraviroc is from a pretreatment CXCR4-using virus reservoir. J Virol. 2006;80:4909-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Woollard SM, Kanmogne GD. Maraviroc: a review of its use in HIV infection and beyond. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2015;9:5447-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

Capsid Inhibitors

Bester SM, Adu-Ampratwum D, Annamalai AS, et al. Structural and Mechanistic Bases of Viral Resistance to HIV-1 Capsid Inhibitor Lenacapavir. mBio. 2022;13:e0180422.

PubMed Abstract»

Bester SM, Wei G, Zhao H, et al. Structural and mechanistic bases for a potent HIV-1 capsid inhibitor. Science. 2020;370:360-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Kredo T, Van der Walt JS, Siegfried N, Cohen K. Therapeutic drug monitoring of antiretrovirals for people with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;:CD007268.

PubMed Abstract»

Margot N, Ram R, Rhee M, Callebaut C. Absence of Lenacapavir (GS-6207) Phenotypic Resistance in HIV Gag Cleavage Site Mutants and in Isolates with Resistance to Existing Drug Classes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2021;65(3):e02057-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Margot N, Vanderveen L, Naik V, et al. Phenotypic resistance to lenacapavir and monotherapy efficacy in a proof-of-concept clinical study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2022;77:989-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: exposure-response relationship and therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) for antiretroviral agents. April 8, 2015.

AIDSinfo»

Segal-Maurer S, DeJesus E, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Capsid Inhibition with Lenacapavir in Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1793-1803.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 3 » Lesson 5. Evaluation and Management of Virologic Failure

General Approach to Management of Virologic Failure

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Management of the treatment-experienced patient: virologic failure. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Bester SM, Adu-Ampratwum D, Annamalai AS, et al. Structural and Mechanistic Bases of Viral Resistance to HIV-1 Capsid Inhibitor Lenacapavir. mBio. 2022;13:e0180422.

PubMed Abstract»

Bester SM, Wei G, Zhao H, et al. Structural and mechanistic bases for a potent HIV-1 capsid inhibitor. Science. 2020;370:360-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Clavel F, Hance AJ. HIV drug resistance. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1023-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Clutter DS, Jordan MR, Bertagnolio S, Shafer RW. HIV-1 drug resistance and resistance testing. Infect Genet Evol. 2016;46:292-307.

PubMed Abstract»

Collier AC, Chun TW, Maenza J, et al. A Pilot Study of Raltegravir Plus Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Early Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: Challenges and Lessons Learned. Biores Open Access. 2016;5:15-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Colombier MA, Molina JM. Doravirine: a review. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:308-314.

PubMed Abstract»

Edén A, Fuchs D, Hagberg L, et al. HIV-1 viral escape in cerebrospinal fluid of subjects on suppressive antiretroviral treatment. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1819-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Ellis RJ, Letendre S, Vaida F, et al. Randomized trial of central nervous system-targeted antiretrovirals for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1015-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Eron JJ, Clotet B, Durant J, et al. Safety and efficacy of dolutegravir in treatment-experienced subjects with raltegravir-resistant HIV type 1 infection: 24-week results of the VIKING Study. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:740-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Esté JA, Telenti A. HIV entry inhibitors. Lancet. 2007;370:81-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Goldman M, Zackin R, Fichtenbaum CJ, et al. Safety of discontinuation of maintenance therapy for disseminated histoplasmosis after immunologic response to antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:1485-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hammond ER, Crum RM, Treisman GJ, et al. The cerebrospinal fluid HIV risk score for assessing central nervous system activity in persons with HIV. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;180:297-307.

PubMed Abstract»

Hu Z, Kuritzkes DR. Interaction of reverse transcriptase (RT) mutations conferring resistance to lamivudine and etravirine: effects on fitness and RT activity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 2011;85:11309-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Jiang X, Feyertag F, Meehan CJ, et al. Characterizing the Diverse Mutational Pathways Associated with R5-Tropic Maraviroc Resistance: HIV-1 That Uses the Drug-Bound CCR5 Coreceptor. J Virol. 2015;89:11457-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Kilby JM, Eron JJ. Novel therapies based on mechanisms of HIV-1 cell entry. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2228-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Laprise C, de Pokomandy A, Baril JG, Dufresne S, Trottier H. Virologic failure following persistent low-level viremia in a cohort of HIV-positive patients: results from 12 years of observation. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1489-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Larder BA, Kemp SD, Harrigan PR. Potential mechanism for sustained antiretroviral efficacy of AZT-3TC combination therapy. Science. 1995;269:696-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Letendre S. Central nervous system complications in HIV disease: HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder. Top Antivir Med. 2011;19:137-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Letendre SL, Mills AM, Tashima KT, et al. ING116070: a study of the pharmacokinetics and antiviral activity of dolutegravir in cerebrospinal fluid in HIV-1-infected, antiretroviral therapy-naive subjects. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1032-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Little SJ, Holte S, Routy JP, et al. Antiretroviral-drug resistance among patients recently infected with HIV. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:385-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Orkin C, Arasteh K, Górgolas Hernández-Mora M, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine after Oral Induction for HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1124-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Pace CS, Fordyce MW, Franco D, Kao CY, Seaman MS, Ho DD. Anti-CD4 monoclonal antibody ibalizumab exhibits breadth and potency against HIV-1, with natural resistance mediated by the loss of a V5 glycan in envelope. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: plasma HIV-1 RNA (viral load) and CD4 count monitoring. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Peluso MJ, Ferretti F, Peterson J, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid HIV escape associated with progressive neurologic dysfunction in patients on antiretroviral therapy with well controlled plasma viral load. AIDS. 2012;26:1765-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Pommier Y, Johnson AA, Marchand C. Integrase inhibitors to treat HIV/AIDS. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2005;4:236-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Roche M, Borm K, Flynn JK, Lewin SR, Churchill MJ, Gorry PR. Molecular Gymnastics: Mechanisms of HIV-1 Resistance to CCR5 Antagonists and Impact on Virus Phenotypes. Curr Top Med Chem. 2016;16:1091-106.

PubMed Abstract»

Schauer G, Leuba S, Sluis-Cremer N. Biophysical Insights into the Inhibitory Mechanism of Non-Nucleoside HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors. Biomolecules. 2013;3:889-904.

PubMed Abstract»

Segal-Maurer S, DeJesus E, Stellbrink HJ, et al. Capsid Inhibition with Lenacapavir in Multidrug-Resistant HIV-1 Infection. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1793-1803.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafer RW, Schapiro JM. HIV-1 drug resistance mutations: an updated framework for the second decade of HAART. AIDS Rev. 2008;10:67-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh K, Marchand B, Kirby KA, Michailidis E, Sarafianos SG. Structural Aspects of Drug Resistance and Inhibition of HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase. Viruses. 2010;2:606-638.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith SJ, Pauly GT, Akram A, et al. Rilpivirine and Doravirine Have Complementary Efficacies Against NNRTI-Resistant HIV-1 Mutants. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72:485-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Andrade-Villanueva JF, Richmond GJ, et al. Long-Acting Cabotegravir and Rilpivirine for Maintenance of HIV-1 Suppression. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1112-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Tambuyzer L, Vingerhoets J, Azijn H, et al. Characterization of genotypic and phenotypic changes in HIV-1-infected patients with virologic failure on an etravirine-containing regimen in the DUET-1 and DUET-2 clinical studies. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2010;26:1197-205.

PubMed Abstract»

Tang MW, Shafer RW. HIV-1 antiretroviral resistance: scientific principles and clinical applications. Drugs. 2012;72:e1-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Eygen V, Thys K, Van Hove C, et al. Deep sequencing analysis of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase at baseline and time of failure in patients receiving rilpivirine in the phase III studies ECHO and THRIVE. J Med Virol. 2016;88:798-806.

PubMed Abstract»

Wainberg MA, Zaharatos GJ, Brenner BG. Development of antiretroviral drug resistance. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:637-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4. Co-Occurring Conditions

Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Module 4 » Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Background

Aichelburg MC, Rieger A, Breitenecker F, et al. Detection and prediction of active tuberculosis disease by a whole-blood interferon-gamma release assay in HIV-1-infected individuals. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:954-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Akolo C, Adetifa I, Shepperd S, Volmink J. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD000171.

PubMed Abstract»

Albalak R, O'Brien RJ, Kammerer JS, et al. Trends in tuberculosis/human immunodeficiency virus comorbidity, United States, 1993-2004. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:2443-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Health Disparities in TB 2013.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2015 Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC; 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2022. National Data. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. TB Incidence in the United States, 1953-2013 Atlanta, Georgia: CDC; 2013.

CDC»

Comstock GW, Livesay VT, Woolpert SF. The prognosis of a positive tuberculin reaction in childhood and adolescence. Am J Epidemiol. 1974;99:131-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Drain PK, Bajema KL, Dowdy D, et al. Incipient and Subclinical Tuberculosis: a Clinical Review of Early Stages and Progression of Infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2018;31(4). pii: e00021-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Durovni B, Saraceni V, Moulton LH, et al. Effect of improved tuberculosis screening and isoniazid preventive therapy on incidence of tuberculosis and death in patients with HIV in clinics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: a stepped wedge, cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:852-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Elzi L, Schlegel M, Weber R, et al. Reducing tuberculosis incidence by tuberculin skin testing, preventive treatment, and antiretroviral therapy in an area of low tuberculosis transmission. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:94-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghassemieh BJ, Attia EF, Koelle DM, Mancuso JD, Narita M, Horne DJ. Latent Tuberculosis Infection Test Agreement in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;194:493-500.

PubMed Abstract»

Golub JE, Saraceni V, Cavalcante SC, et al. The impact of antiretroviral therapy and isoniazid preventive therapy on tuberculosis incidence in HIV-infected patients in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. AIDS. 2007;21:1441-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Haddad MB, Raz KM, Lash TL, et al. Simple Estimates for Local Prevalence of Latent Tuberculosis Infection, United States, 2011-2015. Emerg Infect Dis. 2018;24:1930-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Horsburgh CR Jr, Rubin EJ. Clinical practice. Latent tuberculosis infection in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:1441-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim YJ, Kim SI, Kim YR, Wie SH, Park YJ, Kang MW. Predictive value of interferon-γ ELISPOT assay in HIV 1-infected patients in an intermediate tuberculosis-endemic area. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2012;28:1038-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Kufa T, Mabuto T, Muchiri E, et al. Incidence of HIV-associated tuberculosis among individuals taking combination antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014;9:e111209.

PubMed Abstract»

Lawn SD, Wood R, De Cock KM, Kranzer K, Lewis JJ, Churchyard GJ. Antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in the prevention of HIV-associated tuberculosis in settings with limited health-care resources. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010;10:489-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Lawn SD, Wood R, Wilkinson RJ. Changing concepts of "latent tuberculosis infection" in patients living with HIV infection. Clin Dev Immunol. 2011;2011. pii: 980594.

PubMed Abstract»

Ledesma JR, Ma J, Zheng P, Ross JM, Vos T, Kyu HH. Interferon-gamma release assay levels and risk of progression to active tuberculosis: a systematic review and dose-response meta-regression analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21:467.

PubMed Abstract»

Markowitz N, Hansen NI, Hopewell PC, et al. Incidence of tuberculosis in the United States among HIV-infected persons. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:123-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Metcalfe JZ, Cattamanchi A, McCulloch CE, Lew JD, Ha NP, Graviss EA. Test variability of the QuantiFERON-TB gold in-tube assay in clinical practice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187:206-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Metcalfe JZ, Porco TC, Westenhouse J, et al. Tuberculosis and HIV co-infection, California, USA, 1993–2008. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:400-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Miramontes R, Hill AN, Yelk Woodruff RS, et al. Tuberculosis Infection in the United States: Prevalence Estimates from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011-2012. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0140881.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Selwyn PA, Hartel D, Lewis VA, et al. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:545-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Sonnenberg P, Glynn JR, Fielding K, Murray J, Godfrey-Faussett P, Shearer S. How soon after infection with HIV does the risk of tuberculosis start to increase? A retrospective cohort study in South African gold miners. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:150-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterling TR, Njie G, Zenner D, et al. Guidelines for the Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection: Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Stewart RJ, Tsang CA, Pratt RH, Price SF, Langer AJ. Tuberculosis - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:317-23.

PubMed Abstract»

TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group, Danel C, Moh R, et al. A Trial of Early Antiretrovirals and Isoniazid Preventive Therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:808-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Trieu L, Li J, Hanna DB, Harris TG. Tuberculosis rates among HIV-infected persons in New York City, 2001-2005. Am J Public Health. 2010;100:1031-4.

PubMed Abstract»

World Health Organization (WHO). Global Tuberculosis Report. 2023

WHO»

Module 4 » Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Rationale and Indications for LTBI Screening

Akolo C, Adetifa I, Shepperd S, Volmink J. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD000171.

PubMed Abstract»

Backus LI, Boothroyd DB, Phillips BR, et al. National quality forum performance measures for HIV/AIDS care: the Department of Veterans Affairs experience. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1239-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee LM, Lobato MN, Buskin SE, Morse A, Costa OS. Low adherence to guidelines for preventing TB among persons with newly diagnosed HIV infection, United States. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10:209-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Mazurek GH, Jereb J, Vernon A, LoBue P, Goldberg S, Castro K. Updated guidelines for using Interferon Gamma Release Assays to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection - United States, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010;59:1-25.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pascopella L, Franks J, Marks SM, et al. Opportunities for tuberculosis diagnosis and prevention among persons living with HIV: a cross-sectional study of policies and practices at four large Ryan White Program-Funded HIV clinics. PLoS One. 2014;9:e101313.

PubMed Abstract»

Ross JM, Badje A, Rangaka MX, et al. Isoniazid preventive therapy plus antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. Lancet HIV. 2021;8:e8-e15.

PubMed Abstract»

Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. This is a Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This statement was endorsed by the Council of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. (IDSA), September 1999, and the sections of this statement. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:S221-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Methods Used to Test for Latent Tuberculosis

Aichelburg MC, Reiberger T, Breitenecker F, Mandorfer M, Makristathis A, Rieger A. Reversion and conversion of interferon-γ release assay results in HIV-1-infected individuals. J Infect Dis. 2014;209:729-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Akolo C, Adetifa I, Shepperd S, Volmink J. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD000171.

PubMed Abstract»

Andersen P, Munk ME, Pollock JM, Doherty TM. Specific immune-based diagnosis of tuberculosis. Lancet. 2000;356:1099-104.

PubMed Abstract»

Barcellini L, Borroni E, Brown J, et al. First evaluation of QuantiFERON-TB Gold Plus performance in contact screening. Eur Respir J. 2016;48:1411-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Cattamanchi A, Smith R, Steingart KR, et al. Interferon-gamma release assays for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;56:230-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Day CL, Abrahams DA, Lerumo L, et al. Functional capacity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific T cell responses in humans is associated with mycobacterial load. J Immunol. 2011;187:2222-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Diel R, Loddenkemper R, Meywald-Walter K, Niemann S, Nienhaus A. Predictive value of a whole blood IFN-gamma assay for the development of active tuberculosis disease after recent infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177:1164-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Diel R, Loddenkemper R, Niemann S, Meywald-Walter K, Nienhaus A. Negative and positive predictive value of a whole-blood interferon-γ release assay for developing active tuberculosis: an update. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183:88-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Farhat M, Greenaway C, Pai M, Menzies D. False-positive tuberculin skin tests: what is the absolute effect of BCG and non-tuberculous mycobacteria? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10:1192-204.

PubMed Abstract»

Gray J, Reves R, Johnson S, Belknap R. Identification of false-positive QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube assays by repeat testing in HIV-infected patients at low risk for tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:e20-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A, et al. Longitudinal assessment of an ELISPOT test for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e192.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoffmann H, Avsar K, Göres R, Mavi SC, Hofmann-Thiel S. Equal sensitivity of the new generation QuantiFERON-TB Gold plus in direct comparison with the previous test version QuantiFERON-TB Gold IT. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22:701-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Leung CC, Yam WC, Ho PL, et al. T-Spot.TB outperforms tuberculin skin test in predicting development of active tuberculosis among household contacts. Respirology. 2015;20:496-503.

PubMed Abstract»

Lewinsohn DM, Leonard MK, LoBue PA, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Infectious Diseases Society of America/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Clinical Practice Guidelines: Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:e1-e33.

PubMed Abstract»

Machingaidze S, Verver S, Mulenga H, et al. Predictive value of recent QuantiFERON conversion for tuberculosis disease in adolescents. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;186:1051-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Markowitz N, Hansen NI, Hopewell PC, et al. Incidence of tuberculosis in the United States among HIV-infected persons. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:123-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Metcalfe JZ, Cattamanchi A, McCulloch CE, Lew JD, Ha NP, Graviss EA. Test variability of the QuantiFERON-TB gold in-tube assay in clinical practice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187:206-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Metcalfe JZ, Everett CK, Steingart KR, et al. Interferon-γ release assays for active pulmonary tuberculosis diagnosis in adults in low- and middle-income countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect Dis. 2011;204 Suppl 4:S1120-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Moon HW, Gaur RL, Tien SS, Spangler M, Pai M, Banaei N. Evaluation of QuantiFERON-TB Gold-Plus in Health Care Workers in a Low-Incidence Setting. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55:1650-1657.

PubMed Abstract»

National Tuberculosis Controllers Association; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Guidelines for the investigation of contacts of persons with infectious tuberculosis. Recommendations from the National Tuberculosis Controllers Association and CDC. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54:1-47.

Pub Med Abstract»

Oxford Immunotec. T-SPOT.TB

Oxford Immunotec»

Pai M, Denkinger CM, Kik SV, et al. Gamma interferon release assays for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014;27:3-20.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Petruccioli E, Vanini V, Chiacchio T, et al. Analytical evaluation of QuantiFERON- Plus and QuantiFERON- Gold In-tube assays in subjects with or without tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Edinb). 2017;106:38-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Pullar ND, Steinum H, Bruun JN, Dyrhol-Riise AM. HIV patients with latent tuberculosis living in a low-endemic country do not develop active disease during a 2 year follow-up; a Norwegian prospective multicenter study. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:667.

PubMed Abstract»

Qiagen. QuantiFERON®-TB Gold Plus (QFT®-Plus). Package Insert. July 2018

Qiagen»

Qiagen. QuantiFERON®-TB Gold. Package Insert.

Qiagen»

Rozot V, Vigano S, Mazza-Stalder J, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific CD8+ T cells are functionally and phenotypically different between latent infection and active disease. Eur J Immunol. 2013;43:1568-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Santin M, Muñoz L, Rigau D. Interferon-γ release assays for the diagnosis of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7:e32482.

PubMed Abstract»

Sutherland JS, Young JM, Peterson KL, et al. Polyfunctional CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses to tuberculosis antigens in HIV-1-infected patients before and after anti-retroviral treatment. J Immunol. 2010;184:6537-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Teixeira HC, Abramo C, Munk ME. Immunological diagnosis of tuberculosis: problems and strategies for success. J Bras Pneumol. 2007;33:323-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Watkins RE, Brennan R, Plant AJ. Tuberculin reactivity and the risk of tuberculosis: a review. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2000;4:895-903.

PubMed Abstract»

Zwerling A, van den Hof S, Scholten J, Cobelens F, Menzies D, Pai M. Interferon-gamma release assays for tuberculosis screening of healthcare workers: a systematic review. Thorax. 2012;67:62-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Recommended LTBI Testing in Persons with HIV

Akolo C, Adetifa I, Shepperd S, Volmink J. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD000171.

PubMed Abstract»

Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A, et al. Longitudinal assessment of an ELISPOT test for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e192.

PubMed Abstract»

Leung CC, Yam WC, Ho PL, et al. T-Spot.TB outperforms tuberculin skin test in predicting development of active tuberculosis among household contacts. Respirology. 2015;20:496-503.

PubMed Abstract»

Machingaidze S, Verver S, Mulenga H, et al. Predictive value of recent QuantiFERON conversion for tuberculosis disease in adolescents. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;186:1051-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Markowitz N, Hansen NI, Hopewell PC, et al. Incidence of tuberculosis in the United States among HIV-infected persons. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:123-32.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Watkins RE, Brennan R, Plant AJ. Tuberculin reactivity and the risk of tuberculosis: a review. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2000;4:895-903.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Evaluation of Persons with a Positive LTBI Screening Test

Backus LI, Boothroyd DB, Phillips BR, et al. National quality forum performance measures for HIV/AIDS care: the Department of Veterans Affairs experience. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1239-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Latent Tuberculosis Infection: A Guide for Primary Health Care Providers 2020.

CDC»

Getahun H, Kittikraisak W, Heilig CM, et al. Development of a standardized screening rule for tuberculosis in people living with HIV in resource-constrained settings: individual participant data meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS Med. 2011;8:e1000391.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamada Y, Lujan J, Schenkel K, Ford N, Getahun H. Sensitivity and specificity of WHO's recommended four-symptom screening rule for tuberculosis in people living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e515-e523.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Module 4 » Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Management of LTBI in Persons with HIV

Belknap R, Holland D, Feng PJ, et al. Self-administered Versus Directly Observed Once-Weekly Isoniazid and Rifapentine Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection: A Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167:689-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Borisov AS, Bamrah Morris S, Njie GJ, et al. Update of Recommendations for Use of Once-Weekly Isoniazid-Rifapentine Regimen to Treat Latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:723-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Managing Drug Interactions in the Treatment of HIV-Related Tuberculosis 2013

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Targeted Tuberculosis (TB) Testing and Treatment of Latent TB Infection 2011.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Recommendations for use of an isoniazid-rifapentine regimen with direct observation to treat latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:1650-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Severe isoniazid-associated liver injuries among persons being treated for latent tuberculosis infection - United States, 2004-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:224-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: Fatal and severe liver injuries associated with rifampin and pyrazinamide treatment for latent tuberculosis infection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:998-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); American Thoracic Society. Update: adverse event data and revised American Thoracic Society/CDC recommendations against the use of rifampin and pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection--United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003;52:735-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Churchyard G, Cárdenas V, Chihota V, et al. Annual tuberculosis preventive therapy for persons with HIV infection: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2021;174:1367-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Dooley KE, Savic R, Gupte A, et al. Once-weekly rifapentine and isoniazid for tuberculosis prevention in patients with HIV taking dolutegravir-based antiretroviral therapy: a phase 1/2 trial. Lancet HIV. 2020;7:e401-e409.

PubMed Abstract»

Ena J, Valls V. Short-course therapy with rifampin plus isoniazid, compared with standard therapy with isoniazid, for latent tuberculosis infection: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:670-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Fitzgerald DW, Severe P, Joseph P, et al. No effect of isoniazid prophylaxis for purified protein derivative-negative HIV-infected adults living in a country with endemic tuberculosis: results of a randomized trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28:305-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Geijo MP, Herranz CR, Vaño D, García AJ, García M, Dimas JF. [Short-course isoniazid and rifampin compared with isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection: a randomized clinical trial]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2007;25:300-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Gordin F, Chaisson RE, Matts JP, et al. Rifampin and pyrazinamide vs isoniazid for prevention of tuberculosis in HIV-infected persons: an international randomized trial. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS, the Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group, the Pan American Health Organization, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Study Group. JAMA. 2000;283:1445-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A, et al. Longitudinal assessment of an ELISPOT test for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e192.

PubMed Abstract»

Hong Kong Chest Service/Tuberculosis Research Centre, Madras/British Medical Research Council. A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial of three antituberculosis chemoprophylaxis regimens in patients with silicosis in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Chest Service/Tuberculosis Research Centre, Madras/British Medical Research Council. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145:36-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Horsburgh CR Jr, Goldberg S, Bethel J, et al. Latent TB infection treatment acceptance and completion in the United States and Canada. Chest. 2010;137:401-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Jiménez-Fuentes MA, de Souza-Galvao ML, Mila Augé C, Solsona Peiró J, Altet-Gómez MN. Rifampicin plus isoniazid for the prevention of tuberculosis in an immigrant population. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2013;17:326-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Johnson JL, Okwera A, Hom DL, et al. Duration of efficacy of treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected adults. AIDS. 2001;15:2137-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Markowitz N, Hansen NI, Hopewell PC, et al. Incidence of tuberculosis in the United States among HIV-infected persons. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:123-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Martinson NA, Barnes GL, Moulton LH, et al. New regimens to prevent tuberculosis in adults with HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:11-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Menzies D, Adjobimey M, Ruslami R, et al. Four Months of Rifampin or Nine Months of Isoniazid for Latent Tuberculosis in Adults. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:440-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections: Tuberculosis/HIV coinfection. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Podany AT, Cramer Y, Imperial M, et al. Twice-Daily Dolutegravir Based Antiretroviral Therapy with One Month of Daily Rifapentine and Isoniazid (1HP) for TB Prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2024 Apr 3. Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Rivero A, López-Cortés L, Castillo R, et al. [Randomized clinical trial investigating three chemoprophylaxis regimens for latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected patients]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2007;25:305-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Saukkonen JJ, Cohn DL, Jasmer RM, et al. An official ATS statement: hepatotoxicity of antituberculosis therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174:935-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterling TR, Scott NA, Miro JM, et al. Three months of weekly rifapentine and isoniazid for treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in HIV-coinfected persons. AIDS. 2016;30:1607-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterling TR, Villarino ME, Borisov AS, et al. Three months of rifapentine and isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:2155-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Swindells S, Ramchandani R, Gupta A, et al. One Month of Rifapentine plus Isoniazid to Prevent HIV-Related Tuberculosis. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:1001-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Watkins RE, Brennan R, Plant AJ. Tuberculin reactivity and the risk of tuberculosis: a review. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2000;4:895-903.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiner M, Egelund EF, Engle M, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction of rifapentine and raltegravir in healthy volunteers. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:1079-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Whalen CC, Johnson JL, Okwera A, et al. A trial of three regimens to prevent tuberculosis in Ugandan adults infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Uganda-Case Western Reserve University Research Collaboration. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:801-8.

PubMed Abstract»

World Health Organization (WHO). WHO operational handbook on tuberculosis Module 1: prevention - tuberculosis preventive treatment, second edition. September 9, 2024.

WHO»

Module 4 » Lesson 1. Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Considerations in Special Populations

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Targeted Tuberculosis (TB) Testing and Treatment of Latent TB Infection 2011.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Covelli HD, Wilson RT. Immunologic and medical considerations in tuberculin-sensitized pregnant patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1978;132:256-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Donald PR, Maher D, Qazi S. A research agenda to promote the management of childhood tuberculosis within national tuberculosis programmes. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2007;11:370-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Franks AL, Binkin NJ, Snider DE Jr, Rokaw WM, Becker S. Isoniazid hepatitis among pregnant and postpartum Hispanic patients. Public Health Rep. 1989;104:151-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta A, Montepiedra G, Aaron L, et al. Isoniazid Preventive Therapy in HIV-Infected Pregnant and Postpartum Women. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:1333-1346.

PubMed Abstract»

Gupta A, Wood R, Kaplan R, Bekker LG, Lawn SD. Tuberculosis incidence rates during 8 years of follow-up of an antiretroviral treatment cohort in South Africa: comparison with rates in the community. PLoS One. 2012;7:e34156.

PubMed Abstract»

Kalk E, Heekes A, Mehta U, et al. Safety and Effectiveness of Isoniazid Preventive Therapy in Pregnant Women Living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus on Antiretroviral Therapy: An Observational Study Using Linked Population Data. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:e351-e358.

PubMed Abstract»

LaCourse SM, Cranmer LM, Matemo D, et al. Effect of Pregnancy on Interferon Gamma Release Assay and Tuberculin Skin Test Detection of Latent TB Infection Among HIV-Infected Women in a High Burden Setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:128-136.

PubMed Abstract»

Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, et al. The clinical epidemiology of childhood pulmonary tuberculosis: a critical review of literature from the pre-chemotherapy era. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2004;8:278-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Mathad JS, Bhosale R, Sangar V, et al. Pregnancy differentially impacts performance of latent tuberculosis diagnostics in a high-burden setting. PLoS One. 2014;9:e92308.

PubMed Abstract»

Mathad JS, Savic RM, Britto P, et al. Rifapentine pharmacokinetics and safety in pregnant women with and without HIV on 3HP. Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections 2020; Boston, MA. Abstract 144.

CROI»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Children with and Exposed to HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in children with and exposed to HIV. Mycobacterium tuberculosis. November 6, 2013.

HIV.gov»

Salazar-Austin N, Cohn S, Lala S, et al. Isoniazid Preventive Therapy and Pregnancy Outcomes in Women Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus in the Tshepiso Cohort. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:1419-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Starke JR. Interferon-γ release assays for diagnosis of tuberculosis infection and disease in children. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1763-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

Ahmad Khan F, Verkuijl S, Parrish A, et al. Performance of symptom-based tuberculosis screening among people living with HIV: not as great as hoped. AIDS. 2014;28:1463-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Badje A, Moh R, Gabillard D, et al. Effect of isoniazid preventive therapy on risk of death in west African, HIV-infected adults with high CD4 cell counts: long-term follow-up of the Temprano ANRS 12136 trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5:e1080-e1089.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Ermann J, Rao DA, Teslovich NC, Brenner MB, Raychaudhuri S. Immune cell profiling to guide therapeutic decisions in rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2015;11:541-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Gandhi RT, Zheng L, Bosch RJ, et al. The effect of raltegravir intensification on low-level residual viremia in HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med. 2010;7:e1000321.

PubMed Abstract»

Jonnalagadda S, Lohman Payne B, Brown E, et al. Latent tuberculosis detection by interferon γ release assay during pregnancy predicts active tuberculosis and mortality in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected women and their children. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1826-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahwati LC, Feltner C, Halpern M, et al. Primary Care Screening and Treatment for Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Adults: Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2016;316:970-83.

PubMed Abstract»

LeBoit PE, Berger TG, Egbert BM, Beckstead JH, Yen TS, Stoler MH. Bacillary angiomatosis. The histopathology and differential diagnosis of a pseudoneoplastic infection in patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. Am J Surg Pathol. 1989;13:909-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Li J, Munsiff SS, Tarantino T, Dorsinville M. Adherence to treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in a clinical population in New York City. Int J Infect Dis. 2010;14:e292-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Martínez Alfaro E, Solera J, Serna E, et al. [Compliance, tolerance and effectiveness of a short chemoprophylaxis regimen for the treatment of tuberculosis]. Med Clin (Barc). 1998;111:401-4.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Koehler JE, Maguina C, Dolan MJ, Raoult D. Recommendations for treatment of human infections caused by Bartonella species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:1921-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Spach DH, Koehler JE. Bartonella-associated infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1998;12:137-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Takasaki J, Manabe T, Morino E, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of QuantiFERON-TB Gold Plus compared with QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube and T-SPOT.TB on active tuberculosis in Japan. J Infect Chemother. 2018;24:188-92.

PubMed Abstract»

TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group, Danel C, Moh R, et al. A Trial of Early Antiretrovirals and Isoniazid Preventive Therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:808-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiner M, Egelund EF, Engle M, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction of rifapentine and raltegravir in healthy volunteers. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:1079-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Background and Overview

Brooks JT, Kaplan JE, Holmes KK, Benson C, Pau A, Masur H. HIV-associated opportunistic infections--going, going, but not gone: the continued need for prevention and treatment guidelines. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:609-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Lau B, Jing Y, et al. Incidence of AIDS-Defining Opportunistic Infections in a Multicohort Analysis of HIV-infected Persons in the United States and Canada, 2000-2010. J Infect Dis. 2016;214:862-72.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Pneumocystis Pneumonia

Acute pulmonary effects of aerosolized pentamidine. A randomized controlled study. Toronto Aerosolized Pentamidine Study (TAPS) Group. Chest. 1990;98:907-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Bozzette SA, Finkelstein DM, Spector SA, et al. A randomized trial of three antipneumocystis agents in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:693-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Carr A, Tindall B, Brew BJ, Marriott DJ, Harkness JL, Penny R, Cooper DA. Low-dose trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:106-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Chan C, Montaner J, Lefebvre EA, et al. Atovaquone suspension compared with aerosolized pentamidine for prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects intolerant of trimethoprim or sulfonamides. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:369-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Costiniuk CT, Fergusson DA, Doucette S, Angel JB. Discontinuation of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia prophylaxis with CD4 count <200 cells/µL and virologic suppression: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2011:6: e28570.

PubMed Abstract»

D'Egidio GE, Kravcik S, Cooper CL, Cameron DW, Fergusson DA, Angel JB. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis is not required with a CD4+ T-cell count < 200 cells/microl when viral replication is suppressed. AIDS. 2007;21:1711-5.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Burman WJ, Grant LB, et al. Discontinuation of prophylaxis for Mycobacterium avium complex disease in HIV-infected patients who have a response to antiretroviral therapy. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1085-92.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Luskin-Hawk R, Yurik TM, et al. A randomized trial of daily and thrice-weekly trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA) Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:775-83.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Murphy RL, Yurik TM, et al. Atovaquone compared with dapsone for the prevention of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with HIV infection who cannot tolerate trimethoprim, sulfonamides, or both. Community Program for Clinical Research on AIDS and the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1889-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Furrer H, Opravil M, Rossi M, et al. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis in HIV-infected patients at high risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: prospective multicentre study. AIDS. 2001;15:501-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant J. Get Rich Quick With Old Generic Drugs! The Pyrimethamine Pricing Scandal. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:ofv177.

PubMed Abstract»

Girard PM, Landman R, Gaudebout C, et al. Dapsone-pyrimethamine compared with aerosolized pentamidine as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in HIV infection. The PRIO Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1514-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Green H, Hay P, Dunn DT, McCormack S. A prospective multicentre study of discontinuing prophylaxis for opportunistic infections after effective antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2004;5:278-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Heald A, Flepp M, Chave JP, et al. Treatment for cerebral toxoplasmosis protects against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. The Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:760-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Hughes WT. Use of dapsone in the prevention and treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a review. Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Jul;27:191-204.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaplan JE, Hanson DL, Navin TR, Jones JL. Risk factors for primary Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents and adults in the United States: reassessment of indications for chemoprophylaxis. J Infect Dis. 1998;178:1126-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Lundberg BE, Davidson AJ, Burman WJ. Epidemiology of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in an era of effective prophylaxis: the relative contribution of non-adherence and drug failure. AIDS. 2000;14:2559-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Obaji J, Lee-Pack LR, Gutierrez C, Chan CK. The pulmonary effects of long-term exposure to aerosol pentamidine: a 5-year surveillance study in HIV-infected patients. Chest. 2003;123:1983-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Opportunistic Infections Project Team of the Collaboration of Observational HIV Epidemiological Research in Europe (COHERE), Mocroft A, Reiss P, et al. Is it safe to discontinue primary Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis in patients with virologically suppressed HIV infection and a CD4 cell count <200 cells/microL? Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:611-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Para MF, Finkelstein D, Becker S, Dohn M, Walawander A, Black JR. Reduced toxicity with gradual initiation of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: AIDS Clinical Trials Group 268. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;24:337-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Phair J, Munoz A, Detels R, Kaslow R, Rinaldo C, Saah A. The risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:161-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Podzamczer D, Salazar A, Jimenez J, et al. Intermittent trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with dapsone-pyrimethamine for the simultaneous primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:755-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg DM, McCarthy W, Slavinsky J, et al. Atovaquone suspension for treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2001;15:211-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Schneider MM, Hoepelman AI, Eeftinck Schattenkerk JK, et al. A controlled trial of aerosolized pentamidine or trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Dutch AIDS Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1836-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Schneider MM, Nielsen TL, Nelsing S, et al. Efficacy and toxicity of two doses of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as primary prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus. Dutch AIDS Treatment Group. J Infect Dis. 1995;171:1632-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Toxoplasma Encephalitis

Bucher HC, Griffith L, Guyatt GH, Opravil M. Meta-analysis of prophylactic treatments against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasma encephalitis in HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1997;15:104-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Chirgwin K, Hafner R, Leport C, et al. Randomized phase II trial of atovaquone with pyrimethamine or sulfadiazine for treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: ACTG 237/ANRS 039 Study. AIDS Clinical Trials Group 237/Agence Nationale de Recherche sur le SIDA, Essai 039. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:1243-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Dworkin MS, Hanson DL, Kaplan JE, Jones JL, Ward JW. Risk for preventable opportunistic infections in persons with AIDS after antiretroviral therapy increases CD4+ T lymphocyte counts above prophylaxis thresholds. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:611-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Furrer H, Opravil M, Bernasconi E, Telenti A, Egger M. Stopping primary prophylaxis in HIV-1-infected patients at high risk of toxoplasma encephalitis. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Lancet. 2000;355:2217-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Jones JL, Hanson DL, Chu SY, Ciesielski CA, Kaplan JE, Ward JW, Navin TR. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in HIV-infected persons: risk factors and trends. The Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. AIDS. 1996;10:1393-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Katlama C, Mouthon B, Gourdon D, Lapierre D, Rousseau F. Atovaquone as long-term suppressive therapy for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS and multiple drug intolerance. Atovaquone Expanded Access Group. AIDS. 1996;10:1107-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Kirk O, Lundgren JD, Pedersen C, Nielsen H, Gerstoft J. Can chemoprophylaxis against opportunistic infections be discontinued after an increase in CD4 cells induced by highly active antiretroviral therapy? AIDS. 1999;13:1647-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Mussini C, Pezzotti P, Govoni A, et al. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus type I-infected patients: the changes in opportunistic prophylaxis study. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:1635-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Opravil M, Hirschel B, Lazzarin A, et al. Once-weekly administration of dapsone/pyrimethamine vs. aerosolized pentamidine as combined prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;20:531-41.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Disseminated Mycobacterium avium Complex

Benson CA, Ellner JJ. Mycobacterium avium complex infection and AIDS: advances in theory and practice. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:7-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Benson CA, Williams PL, Cohn DL, et al. Clarithromycin or rifabutin alone or in combination for primary prophylaxis of Mycobacterium avium complex disease in patients with AIDS: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The AIDS Clinical Trials Group 196/Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS 009 Protocol Team. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:1289-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Brooks JT, Song R, Hanson DL, Wolfe M, Swerdlow DL; Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Working Group. Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis against Mycobacterium avium complex infection in HIV-infected persons receiving antiretroviral therapy: observations from a large national cohort in the United States, 1992-2002. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:549-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Chaisson RE, Moore RD, Richman DD, Keruly J, Creagh T. Incidence and natural history of Mycobacterium avium-complex infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease treated with zidovudine. The Zidovudine Epidemiology Study Group. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Aug;146:285-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Chêne G, Phillips A, Costagliola D, et al. Cohort Profile: Collaboration of Observational HIV Epidemiological Research Europe (COHERE) in EuroCoord. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46:797-797n.

PubMed Abstract»

Currier JS, Williams PL, Koletar SL, et al. Discontinuation of Mycobacterium avium complex prophylaxis in patients with antiretroviral therapy-induced increases in CD4+ cell count. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. AIDS Clinical Trials Group 362 Study Team. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:493-503.

PubMed Abstract»

Daley CL. Mycobacterium avium Complex Disease. Microbiol Spectr. 2017 Apr;5:.

PubMed Abstract»

Jung Y, Song KH, Choe PG, et al. Incidence of disseminated Mycobacterium avium-complex infection in HIV patients receiving antiretroviral therapy with use of Mycobacterium avium-complex prophylaxis. Int J STD AIDS. 2017;28:1426-1432.

PubMed Abstract»

Nightingale SD, Byrd LT, Southern PM, Jockusch JD, Cal SX, Wynne BA. Incidence of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex bacteremia in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. J Infect Dis. 1992;165:1082-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Nightingale SD, Cameron DW, Gordin FM, et al. Two controlled trials of rifabutin prophylaxis against Mycobacterium avium complex infection in AIDS. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:828-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Oldfield EC 3rd, Fessel WJ, Dunne MW, et al. Once weekly azithromycin therapy for prevention of Mycobacterium avium complex infection in patients with AIDS: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:611-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pierce M, Crampton S, Henry D, et al. A randomized trial of clarithromycin as prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in patients with advanced acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:384-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Uthman MM, Uthman OA, Yahaya I. Interventions for the prevention of Mycobacterium avium complex in adults and children with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;:CD007191.

PubMed Abstract»

Yangco BG, Buchacz K, Baker R, Palella FJ, Armon C, Brooks JT. Is primary Mycobacterium avium complex prophylaxis necessary in patients with CD4 <50 cells/μL who are virologically suppressed on cART? AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2014;28:280-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Cryptococcal Meningitis

Chang LW, Phipps WT, Kennedy GE, Rutherford GW. Antifungal interventions for the primary prevention of cryptococcal disease in adults with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;:CD004773.

PubMed Abstract»

Harris JR, Lockhart SR, Debess E, et al. Cryptococcus gattii in the United States: clinical aspects of infection with an emerging pathogen. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1188-95.

PubMed Abstract»

McKenney J, Bauman S, Neary B, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and outcomes of cryptococcal antigen positivity among patients with AIDS, United States, 1986-2012. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;60:959-65.

PubMed Abstract»

McKenney J, Bauman S, Neary B, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and outcomes of cryptococcal antigen positivity among patients with AIDS, United States, 1986-2012. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:959-65.

PubMed Abstract»

McKenney J, Smith RM, Chiller TM, et al. Prevalence and correlates of cryptococcal antigen positivity among AIDS patients--United States, 1986-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:585-7.

PubMed Abstract»

McKinsey DS, Wheat LJ, Cloud GA, et al. Itraconazole prophylaxis for fungal infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:1049–56.

PubMed Abstract»

Mirza SA, Phelan M, Rimland D, et al. The changing epidemiology of cryptococcosis: an update from population-based active surveillance in 2 large metropolitan areas, 1992-2000. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:789-94.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Park BJ, Wannemuehler KA, Marston BJ, Govender N, Pappas PG, Chiller TM. Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS. 2009;23:525-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Powderly WG, Finkelstein D, Feinberg J, et al. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with clotrimazole troches for the prevention of fungal infections in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:700-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Rajasingham R, Smith RM, Park BJ, et al. Global burden of disease of HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: an updated analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17:873-881.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Cytomegalovirus

Arribas JR, Storch GA, Clifford DB, Tselis AC. Cytomegalovirus encephalitis. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:577-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Dieterich DT, Rahmin M. Cytomegalovirus colitis in AIDS: presentation in 44 patients and a review of the literature. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1991;4 Suppl 1:S29-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant JE, Moore RD, Richman DD, Keruly J, Chaisson RE. Incidence and natural history of cytomegalovirus disease in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease treated with zidovudine. The Zidovudine Epidemiology Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:1223-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Holbrook JT, Kempen JH, Meinert CL, Davis MD. Longitudinal study of the ocular complications of AIDS: 1. Ocular diagnoses at enrollment. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:780-6.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Schwarcz L, Chen MJ, Vittinghoff E, Hsu L, Schwarcz S. Declining incidence of AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses: results from 16 years of population-based AIDS surveillance. AIDS. 2013;27:597-605.

PubMed Abstract»

Spector SA, McKinley GF, Lalezari JP, et al. Oral ganciclovir for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in persons with AIDS. Roche Cooperative Oral Ganciclovir Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1491-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Whitley RJ, Jacobson MA, Friedberg DN, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of cytomegalovirus diseases in patients with AIDS in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of an international panel. International AIDS Society-USA. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:957-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilcox CM, Straub RF, Schwartz DA. Cytomegalovirus esophagitis in AIDS: a prospective evaluation of clinical response to ganciclovir therapy, relapse rate, and long-term outcome. Am J Med. 1995;98:169-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Wohl DA, Kendall MA, Andersen J, et al. Low rate of CMV end-organ disease in HIV-infected patients despite low CD4+ cell counts and CMV viremia: results of ACTG protocol A5030. HIV Clin Trials. 2009;10:143-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Histoplasmosis

Chu JH, Feudtner C, Heydon K, Walsh TJ, Zaoutis TE. Hospitalizations for endemic mycoses: a population-based national study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:822-5.

PubMed Abstract»

McKinsey DS, Spiegel RA, Hutwagner L, et al. Prospective study of histoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: incidence, risk factors and pathophysiology. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1195-203.

PubMed Abstract»

Nacher M, Sarazin F, El Guedj M, et al. Increased incidence of disseminated histoplasmosis following highly active antiretroviral therapy initiation. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:468-70.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Wheat LJ, Azar MM, Bahr NC, Spec A, Relich RF, Hage C. Histoplasmosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2016;30:207-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 2. Opportunistic Infections: Prevention

Coccidioidomycosis

Masannat FY, Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in patients with HIV-1 infection in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1-7.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Stockamp NW, Thompson GR 3rd. Coccidioidomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2016;30:229-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1174-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Au Eong KG, Beatty S, Charles SJ. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 1999;75:585-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii-- Pacific Northwest, 2004-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:865-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Furrer H, Telenti A, Rossi M, Ledergerber B. Discontinuing or withholding primary prophylaxis against Mycobacterium avium in patients on successful antiretroviral combination therapy. The Swiss HIV Cohort Study. AIDS. 2000;14:1409-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Galgiani JN, Ampel NM, Blair JE, et al. Coccidioidomycosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1217-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Galgiani JN, Ampel NM, Catanzaro A, Johnson RH, Stevens DA, Williams PL. Practice guideline for the treatment of coccidioidomycosis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:658-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Gingo MR, Balasubramani GK, Kingsley L, et al. The impact of HAART on the respiratory complications of HIV infection: longitudinal trends in the MACS and WIHS cohorts. PLoS One. 2013;8:e58812.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinsztejn B, Nguyen BY, Katlama C, et al. Safety and efficacy of the HIV-1 integrase inhibitor raltegravir (MK-0518) in treatment-experienced patients with multidrug-resistant virus: a phase II randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007;369:1261-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hajjeh RA. Disseminated histoplasmosis in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Aug;21 Suppl 1:S108-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Havlik JA Jr, Horsburgh CR Jr, Metchock B, Williams PP, Fann SA, Thompson SE 3rd. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection: clinical identification and epidemiologic trends. J Infect Dis. 1992;165:577-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaplan JE, Vallabhaneni S, Smith RM, Chideya-Chihota S, Chehab J, Park B. Cryptococcal antigen screening and early antifungal treatment to prevent cryptococcal meningitis: a review of the literature. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68 Suppl 3:S331-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Kovacs JA, Gill VJ, Meshnick S, Masur H. New insights into transmission, diagnosis, and drug treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. JAMA. 2001;286:2450-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Mocroft A, Reiss P, Kirk O, et al. Is it safe to discontinue primary Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis in patients with virologically suppressed HIV infection and a CD4 cell count <200 cells/microL? Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:611-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Njei B, Kongnyuy EJ, Kumar S, Okwen MP, Sankar MJ, Mbuagbaw L. Optimal timing for antiretroviral therapy initiation in patients with HIV infection and concurrent cryptococcal meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2:CD009012.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Saag MS, Cloud GA, Graybill JR, et al. A comparison of itraconazole versus fluconazole as maintenance therapy for AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:291-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Background

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

da Cunha Colombo ER, Mora DJ, Silva-Vergara ML. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) associated with Cryptococcus neoformans infection in AIDS patients. Mycoses. 2011;54:e178-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaplan JE, Hanson D, Dworkin MS, et al. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30 Suppl 1:S5-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Manzardo C, Guardo AC, Letang E, Plana M, Gatell JM, Miro JM. Opportunistic infections and immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-1-infected adults in the combined antiretroviral therapy era: a comprehensive review. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2015;13:751-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Müller M, Wandel S, Colebunders R, Attia S, Furrer H, Egger M. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in patients starting antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2010;10:251-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Novak RM, Richardson JT, Buchacz K, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: incidence and implications for mortality. AIDS. 2012;26:721-30.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Summers NA, Kelley CF, Armstrong W, Marconi VC, Nguyen ML. Not a Disease of the Past: A Case Series of Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy in the Established Antiretroviral Era. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2019;35:544-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Pneumocystis Pneumonia

Atkinson A, Miro JM, Mocroft A, et al. No need for secondary Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia prophylaxis in adult people living with HIV from Europe on ART with suppressed viraemia and a CD4 cell count greater than 100 cells/µL. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021;24:e25726.

PubMed Abstract»

Boiselle PM, Crans CA Jr, Kaplan MA. The changing face of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1999;172:1301-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Crans CA Jr, Boiselle PM. Imaging features of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Crit Rev Diagn Imaging. 1999;40:251-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Cruciani M, Marcati P, Malena M, Bosco O, Serpelloni G, Mengoli C. Meta-analysis of diagnostic procedures for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV-1-infected patients. Eur Respir J. 2002;20:982-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Gagnon S, Boota AM, Fischl MA, Baier H, Kirksey OW, La Voie L. Corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy for severe Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1444-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Golden JA, Hollander H, Stulbarg MS, Gamsu G. Bronchoalveolar lavage as the exclusive diagnostic modality for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. A prospective study among patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chest. 1986;90:18-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Huang L, Cattamanchi A, Davis JL, et al. HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2011;8:294-300.

PubMed Abstract»

Ingram RJ, Call S, Andrade A, White C, Wheeler D. Management and outcome of pneumothoraces in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:624-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kanne JP, Yandow DR, Meyer CA. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia: high-resolution CT findings in patients with and without HIV infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2012;198:W555-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Kovacs JA, Gill VJ, Meshnick S, Masur H. New insights into transmission, diagnosis, and drug treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. JAMA. 2001;286:2450-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Kovacs JA, Masur H. Evolving health effects of Pneumocystis: one hundred years of progress in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA. 2009;301:2578-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Kovacs JA, Ng VL, Masur H, et al. Diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: improved detection in sputum with use of monoclonal antibodies. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:589-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Larsen HH, Masur H, Kovacs JA, et al. Development and evaluation of a quantitative, touch-down, real-time PCR assay for diagnosing Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:490-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Opravil M, Marincek B, Fuchs WA, et al. Shortcomings of chest radiography in detecting Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1994;7:39-45.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pastores SM, Garay SM, Naidich DP, Rom WN. Review: pneumothorax in patients with AIDS-related Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Am J Med Sci. 1996;312:229-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Salerno D, Mushatt D, Myers L, et al. Serum and bal beta-D-glucan for the diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia in HIV positive patients. Respir Med. 2014;108:1688-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Komarow L, Finkelman MA, et al. Blood (1->3)-beta-D-glucan as a diagnostic test for HIV-related Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:197-202.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith DE, McLuckie A, Wyatt J, Gazzard B. Severe exercise hypoxaemia with normal or near normal X-rays: a feature of Pneumocystis carinii infection. Lancet. 1988;2:1049-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Stringer JR, Beard CB, Miller RF, Wakefield AE. A new name (Pneumocystis jiroveci) for Pneumocystis from humans. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:891-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Torres J, Goldman M, Wheat LJ, et al. Diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with polymerase chain reaction: a blinded comparison to standard methods. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:141-5.

PubMed Abstract»

White PL, Backx M, Barnes RA. Diagnosis and management of Pneumocystis jirovecii infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2017;15:435-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Zaman MK, White DA. Serum lactate dehydrogenase levels and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Diagnostic and prognostic significance. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;137:796-800.

PubMed Abstract»

Zolopa A, Andersen J, Powderly W, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy reduces AIDS progression/death in individuals with acute opportunistic infections: a multicenter randomized strategy trial. PLoS One. 2009;4:e5575

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Toxoplasma gondii Encephalitis

Antinori A, Ammassari A, De Luca A, et al. Diagnosis of AIDS-related focal brain lesions: a decision-making analysis based on clinical and neuroradiologic characteristics combined with polymerase chain reaction assays in CSF. Neurology. 1997;48:687-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Cingolani A, De Luca A, Ammassari A, Murri R, Linzalone A, Grillo R, Antinori A. PCR detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in CSF for the differential diagnosis of AIDS-related focal brain lesions. J Med Microbiol. 1996;45:472-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Cinque P, Scarpellini P, Vago L, Linde A, Lazzarin A. Diagnosis of central nervous system complications in HIV-infected patients: cerebrospinal fluid analysis by the polymerase chain reaction. AIDS. 1997;11:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Costantini S, Walensky RP. The Costs of Drugs in Infectious Diseases: Branded, Generics, and Why We Should Care. J Infect Dis. 2020;221:690-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Dannemann B, McCutchan JA, Israelski D, et al. Treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. A randomized trial comparing pyrimethamine plus clindamycin to pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine. The California Collaborative Treatment Group. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:33-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Duval X, Pajot O, Le Moing V, et al. Maintenance therapy with cotrimoxazole for toxoplasmic encephalitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2004;18:1342-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant J. Get Rich Quick With Old Generic Drugs! The Pyrimethamine Pricing Scandal. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:ofv177.

PubMed Abstract»

Katlama C, De Wit S, O'Doherty E, Van Glabeke M, Clumeck N. Pyrimethamine-clindamycin vs. pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine as acute and long-term therapy for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:268-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Kongsaengdao S, Samintarapanya K, Oranratnachai K, Prapakarn W, Apichartpiyakul C. Randomized controlled trial of pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine versus trimethoprim plus sulfamethoxazole for treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS patients. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic). 2008;7:11-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Luft BJ, Hafner R, Korzun AH, et al. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Members of the ACTG 077p/ANRS 009 Study Team. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:995-1000.

PubMed Abstract»

Luft BJ, Remington JS. Toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15:211-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Novati R, Castagna A, Morsica G, et al. Polymerase chain reaction for Toxoplasma gondii DNA in the cerebrospinal fluid of AIDS patients with focal brain lesions. AIDS. 1994;8:1691-4.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Porter SB, Sande MA. Toxoplasmosis of the central nervous system in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1643-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Rabaud C, May T, Amiel C, Katlama C, Leport C, Ambroise-Thomas P, Canton P. Extracerebral toxoplasmosis in patients infected with HIV. A French National Survey. Medicine (Baltimore). 1994;73:306-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Disseminated Mycobacterium avium Complex Disease

Benson CA, Williams PL, Currier JS, et al. A prospective, randomized trial examining the efficacy and safety of clarithromycin in combination with ethambutol, rifabutin, or both for the treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:1234-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Chaisson RE, Benson CA, Dube MP, et al. Clarithromycin therapy for bacteremic Mycobacterium avium complex disease. A randomized, double-blind, dose-ranging study in patients with AIDS. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 157 Study Team. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:905-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Chaisson RE, Keiser P, Pierce M, et al. Clarithromycin and ethambutol with or without clofazimine for the treatment of bacteremic Mycobacterium avium complex disease in patients with HIV infection. AIDS. 1997;11:311-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Chapagain M, Pasipanodya JG, Athale S, et al. Omadacycline efficacy in the hollow fibre system model of pulmonary Mycobacterium avium complex and potency at clinically attainable doses. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2022;77:1694-1705.

PubMed Abstract»

Fournier S, Burguiere AM, Flahault A, Vincent V, Treilhou MP, Eliaszewicz M. Effect of adding clofazimine to combined clarithromycin-ethambutol therapy for Mycobacteriumavium complex septicemia in AIDS patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1999;18:16-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Gordin FM, Cohn DL, Sullam PM, Schoenfelder JR, Wynne BA, Horsburgh CR Jr. Early manifestations of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease: a prospective evaluation. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:126-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Gordin FM, Sullam PM, Shafran SD, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled study of rifabutin added to a regimen of clarithromycin and ethambutol for treatment of disseminated infection with Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:1080-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Hafner R, Inderlied CB, Peterson DM, et al. Correlation of quantitative bone marrow and blood cultures in AIDS patients with disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:438-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Horsburgh CR Jr. The pathophysiology of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex disease in AIDS. J Infect Dis. 1999;179 Suppl 3:S461-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Karakousis PC, Moore RD, Chaisson RE. Mycobacterium avium complex in patients with HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4:557-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Koletar SL, Berry AJ, Cynamon MH, et al. Azithromycin as treatment for disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex in AIDS patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999;43:2869-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Lin S, Hua W, Wang S, et al. In vitro assessment of 17 antimicrobial agents against clinical Mycobacterium avium complex isolates. BMC Microbiol. 2022;22:175.

PubMed Abstract»

Litvinov V, Makarova M, Kudlay D, Nikolenko N, Mikhailova J. In vitro activity of bedaquiline against Mycobacterium avium complex. J Med Microbiol. 2021 Oct;70(10).

PubMed Abstract»

Nyberg DA, Federle MP, Jeffrey RB, Bottles K, Wofsy CB. Abdominal CT findings of disseminated Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare in AIDS. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1985;145:297-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Phillips P, Bonner S, Gataric N, et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial immune reconstitution syndrome in HIV-infected patients: spectrum of disease and long-term follow-up. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1483-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafran SD, Singer J, Zarowny DP, et al. A comparison of two regimens for the treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex bacteremia in AIDS: rifabutin, ethambutol, and clarithromycin versus rifampin, ethambutol, clofazimine, and ciprofloxacin. Canadian HIV Trials Network Protocol 010 Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:377-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Shafran SD. Prevention and treatment of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Int J Infect Dis. 1998;3:39-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Shanson DC, Dryden MS. Comparison of methods for isolating Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare from blood of patients with AIDS. J Clin Pathol. 1988;41:687-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Uthman MM, Uthman OA, Yahaya I. Interventions for the prevention of Mycobacterium avium complex in adults and children with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;:CD007191.

PubMed Abstract»

Ward TT, Rimland D, Kauffman C, Huycke M, Evans TG, Heifets L. Randomized, open-label trial of azithromycin plus ethambutol vs. clarithromycin plus ethambutol as therapy for Mycobacterium avium complex bacteremia in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Veterans Affairs HIV Research Consortium. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27:1278-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Cryptococcosis

Aberg JA, Watson J, Segal M, Chang LW. Clinical utility of monitoring serum cryptococcal antigen (sCRAG) titers in patients with AIDS-related cryptococcal disease. HIV Clin Trials. 2000;1:1-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Boulware DR, Meya DB, Muzoora C, et al. Timing of antiretroviral therapy after diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:2487-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Bozzette SA, Larsen RA, Chiu J, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of maintenance therapy with fluconazole after treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. California Collaborative Treatment Group. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:580-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii-- Pacific Northwest, 2004-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:865-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Chuck SL, Sande MA. Infections with Cryptococcus neoformans in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:794-9.

PubMed Abstract»

da Cunha Colombo ER, Mora DJ, Silva-Vergara ML. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) associated with Cryptococcus neoformans infection in AIDS patients. Mycoses. 2011;54:e178-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Darras-Joly C, Chevret S, Wolff M, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans infection in France: epidemiologic features of and early prognostic parameters for 76 patients who were infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:369-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Day JN, Chau TT, Wolbers M, et al. Combination antifungal therapy for cryptococcal meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1291-302.

PubMed Abstract»

Fessler RD, Sobel J, Guyot L, et al. Management of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with Cryptococcal meningitis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;17:137-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Franco-Paredes C, Womack T, Bohlmeyer T, et al. Management of Cryptococcus gattii meningoencephalitis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:348-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Harris JR, Lockhart SR, Debess E, et al. Cryptococcus gattii in the United States: clinical aspects of infection with an emerging pathogen. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1188-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Kwon-Chung KJ, Fraser JA, Doering TL, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, the etiologic agents of cryptococcosis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2014;4:a019760.

PubMed Abstract»

Makadzange AT, Ndhlovu CE, Takarinda K, et al. Early versus delayed initiation of antiretroviral therapy for concurrent HIV infection and cryptococcal meningitis in sub-saharan Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1532-8.

PubMed Abstract»

McKenney J, Bauman S, Neary B, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and outcomes of cryptococcal antigen positivity among patients with AIDS, United States, 1986-2012. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;60:959-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Murakawa GJ, Kerschmann R, Berger T. Cutaneous Cryptococcus infection and AIDS. Report of 12 cases and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol. 1996;132:545-8.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Halloran JA, Franklin A, Lainhart W, Burnham CA, Powderly W, Dubberke E. Pitfalls Associated With the Use of Molecular Diagnostic Panels in the Diagnosis of Cryptococcal Meningitis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017 Fall;4:ofx242.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Powderly WG, Cloud GA, Dismukes WE, Saag MS. Measurement of cryptococcal antigen in serum and cerebrospinal fluid: value in the management of AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:789-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Powderly WG, Saag MS, Cloud GA, et al. A controlled trial of fluconazole or amphotericin B to prevent relapse of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The NIAID AIDS Clinical Trials Group and Mycoses Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:793-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Rhein J, Bahr NC, Hemmert AC, et al. Diagnostic performance of a multiplex PCR assay for meningitis in an HIV-infected population in Uganda. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016;84:268-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Rolfes MA, Hullsiek KH, Rhein J, et al. The effect of therapeutic lumbar punctures on acute mortality from cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1607-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Shelburne SA 3rd, Darcourt J, White AC Jr, Greenberg SB, Hamill RJ, Atmar RL, Visnegarwala F. The role of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in AIDS-related Cryptococcus neoformans disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1049-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Tanner DC, Weinstein MP, Fedorciw B, Joho KL, Thorpe JJ, Reller L. Comparison of commercial kits for detection of cryptococcal antigen. J Clin Microbiol. 1994;32:1680-4.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Horst CM, Saag MS, Cloud GA, et al. Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group and AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:15-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Cytomegalovirus Disease

Arribas JR, Clifford DB, Fichtenbaum CJ, Commins DL, Powderly WG, Storch GA. Level of cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA in cerebrospinal fluid of subjects with AIDS and CMV infection of the central nervous system. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:527-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Au Eong KG, Beatty S, Charles SJ. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 1999;75:585-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Baudouin C, Chassain C, Caujolle C, Gastaud P. Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS patients using intravitreal injections of highly concentrated ganciclovir. Ophthalmologica. 1996;210:329-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Blanshard C, Benhamou Y, Dohin E, Lernestedt JO, Gazzard BG, Katlama C. Treatment of AIDS-associated gastrointestinal cytomegalovirus infection with foscarnet and ganciclovir: a randomized comparison. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:622-8.

PubMed Abstract»

DeRodriguez CV, Fuhrer J, Lake-Bakaar G. Cytomegalovirus colitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J R Soc Med. 1994;87:203-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Dieterich DT, Kotler DP, Busch DF, Crumpacker C, Du Mond C, Dearmand B, Buhles W.Ganciclovir treatment of cytomegalovirus colitis in AIDS: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study. J Infect Dis. 1993;167:278-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Dieterich DT, Rahmin M. Cytomegalovirus colitis in AIDS: presentation in 44 patients and a review of the literature. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1991;4 Suppl 1:S29-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Goldberg DE, Smithen LM, Angelilli A, Freeman WR. HIV-associated retinopathy in the HAART era. Retina. 2005;25:633-49; quiz 682-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Holbrook JT, Kempen JH, Meinert CL, Davis MD. Longitudinal study of the ocular complications of AIDS: 1. Ocular diagnoses at enrollment. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:780-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Jacobson MA, O'Donnell JJ. Approaches to the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis: ganciclovir and foscarnet. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1991;4 Suppl 1:S11-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Karavellas MP, Azen SP, MacDonald JC, et al. Immune recovery vitritis and uveitis in AIDS: clinical predictors, sequelae, and treatment outcomes. Retina. 2001;21:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Karavellas MP, Plummer DJ, Macdonald JC, et al. Incidence of immune recovery vitritis in cytomegalovirus retinitis patients following institution of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:697-700.

PubMed Abstract»

Karavellas MP, Song M, Macdonald JC, Freeman WR. Long-term posterior and anterior segment complications of immune recovery uveitis associated with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130:57-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Kuppermann BD, Petty JG, Richman DD, Mathews WC, Fullerton SC, Rickman LS, Freeman WR. Correlation between CD4+ counts and prevalence of cytomegalovirus retinitis and human immunodeficiency virus-related noninfectious retinal vasculopathy in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;115:575-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Kuritzkes DR, Parenti D, Ward DJ, et al. Filgrastim prevents severe neutropenia and reduces infective morbidity in patients with advanced HIV infection: results of a randomized, multicenter, controlled trial. G-CSF 930101 Study Group. AIDS. 1998;12:65-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Lalezari JP, Stagg RJ, Kuppermann BD, et al. Intravenous cidofovir for peripheral cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:257-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Lieberman RM, Orellana J, Melton RC. Efficacy of intravitreal foscarnet in a patient with AIDS. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:868-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Martin DF, Sierra-Madero J, Walmsley S, et al. A controlled trial of valganciclovir as induction therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1119-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Morrison VL, Kozak I, LaBree LD, Azen SP, Kayicioglu OO, Freeman WR. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for the treatment of immune recovery uveitis macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:334-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Nguyen QD, Kempen JH, Bolton SG, Dunn JP, Jabs DA. Immune recovery uveitis in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis after highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129:634-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Ortega-Larrocea G, Espinosa E, Reyes-Terán G. Lower incidence and severity of cytomegalovirus-associated immune recovery uveitis in HIV-infected patients with delayed highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2005;19:735-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Palestine AG, Polis MA, De Smet MD, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of foscarnet in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:665-73.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Stewart MW. Optimal management of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Ophthalmol. 2010;4:285-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Velez G, Roy CE, Whitcup SM, Chan CC, Robinson MR. High-dose intravitreal ganciclovir and foscarnet for cytomegalovirus retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131:396-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilcox CM, Diehl DL, Cello JP, Margaretten W, Jacobson MA. Cytomegalovirus esophagitis in patients with AIDS. A clinical, endoscopic, and pathologic correlation. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:589-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Wolf DG, Spector SA. Diagnosis of human cytomegalovirus central nervous system disease in AIDS patients by DNA amplification from cerebrospinal fluid. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:1412-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy

Antinori A, Cingolani A, Lorenzini P, et al. Clinical epidemiology and survival of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: data from the Italian Registry Investigative Neuro AIDS (IRINA). J Neurovirol. 2003;9 Suppl 1:47-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Berger JR, Kaszovitz B, Post MJ, Dickinson G. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. A review of the literature with a report of sixteen cases. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:78-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Cortese I, Muranski P, Enose-Akahata Y, et al. Pembrolizumab Treatment for Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:1597-1605.

PubMed Abstract»

Engsig FN, Hansen AB, Omland LH, et al. Incidence, clinical presentation, and outcome of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV-infected patients during the highly active antiretroviral therapy era: a nationwide cohort study. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:77-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Ferenczy MW, Marshall LJ, Nelson CD, et al. Molecular biology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, the JC virus-induced demyelinating disease of the human brain. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2012;25:471-506.

PubMed Abstract»

Khanna N, Elzi L, Mueller NJ, et al. Incidence and outcome of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy over 20 years of the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1459-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Khoury MN, Alsop DC, Agnihotri SP, et al. Hyperintense cortical signal on magnetic resonance imaging reflects focal leukocortical encephalitis and seizure risk in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Ann Neurol. 2014;75:659-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Lima MA, Drislane FW, Koralnik IJ. Seizures and their outcome in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology. 2006;66:262-4.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pavlovic D, Patera AC, Nyberg F, Gerber M, Liu M. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: current treatment options and future perspectives. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2015;8:255-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Weissert R. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Neuroimmunol. 2011;231:73-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Zunt JR, Tu RK, Anderson DM, Copass MC, Marra CM. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy presenting as human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV)-associated dementia. Neurology. 1997;49:263-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Esophageal Candidiasis

Alsaad AM, Kaplan YC, Koren G. Exposure to fluconazole and risk of congenital malformations in the offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reprod Toxicol. 2015;52:78-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Fichtenbaum CJ, Koletar S, Yiannoutsos C, et al. Refractory mucosal candidiasis in advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:749-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Krause DS, Simjee AE, van Rensburg C, et al. A randomized, double-blind trial of anidulafungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:770-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Maenza JR, Merz WG, Romagnoli MJ, Keruly JC, Moore RD, Gallant JE. Infection due to fluconazole-resistant Candida in patients with AIDS: prevalence and microbiology. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:28-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Mølgaard-Nielsen D, Pasternak B, Hviid A. Use of oral fluconazole during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mølgaard-Nielsen D, Svanström H, Melbye M, Hviid A, Pasternak B. Association Between Use of Oral Fluconazole During Pregnancy and Risk of Spontaneous Abortion and Stillbirth. JAMA. 2016;315:58-67.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Phillips P, De Beule K, Frechette G, et al. A double-blind comparison of itraconazole oral solution and fluconazole capsules for the treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:1368-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Pienaar ED, Young T, Holmes H. Interventions for the prevention and management of oropharyngeal candidiasis associated with HIV infection in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD003940.

PubMed Abstract»

Rex JH, Rinaldi MG, Pfaller MA. Resistance of Candida species to fluconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Skiest DJ, Vazquez JA, Anstead GM, et al. Posaconazole for the treatment of azole-refractory oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in subjects with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:607-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson GR 3rd, Patel PK, Kirkpatrick WR, et al. Oropharyngeal candidiasis in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109:488-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Vazquez JA, Skiest DJ, Tissot-Dupont H, Lennox JL, Boparai N, Isaacs R. Safety and efficacy of posaconazole in the long-term treatment of azole-refractory oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in patients with HIV infection. HIV Clin Trials. 2007;8:86-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Vazquez JA. Optimal management of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in patients living with HIV infection. HIV AIDS (Auckl). 2010;2:89-101.

PubMed Abstract»

Viljoen J, Azie N, Schmitt-Hoffmann AH, Ghannoum M. A phase 2, randomized, double-blind, multicenter trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of three dosing regimens of isavuconazole compared with fluconazole in patients with uncomplicated esophageal candidiasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:1671-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilcox CM, Alexander LN, Clark WS, Thompson SE 3rd. Fluconazole compared with endoscopy for human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with esophageal symptoms. Gastroenterology. 1996;110:1803-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilcox CM, Darouiche RO, Laine L, Moskovitz BL, Mallegol I, Wu J. A randomized, double-blind comparison of itraconazole oral solution and fluconazole tablets in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:227-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Histoplasmosis

PubMed Abstract»

Connolly PA, Durkin MM, Lemonte AM, Hackett EJ, Wheat LJ. Detection of histoplasma antigen by a quantitative enzyme immunoassay. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2007;14:1587-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Edelman M, Mckitrick J. Images in clinical medicine. Histoplasma capsulatum in a peripheral-blood smear. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:28.

PubMed Abstract»

Hage CA, Davis TE, Fuller D, et al. Diagnosis of histoplasmosis by antigen detection in BAL fluid. Chest. 2010;137:623-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Hajjeh RA. Disseminated histoplasmosis in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Aug;21 Suppl 1:S108-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Hecht FM, Wheat J, Korzun AH, et al. Itraconazole maintenance treatment for histoplasmosis in AIDS: a prospective, multicenter trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1997;16:100-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Hendren N, Yek C, Mull J, Cutrell JB. Disseminated histoplasmosis presenting as multiple oral ulcers. BMJ Case Rep. 2017;2017:.

PubMed Abstract»

Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20:115-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Lestner JM, Roberts SA, Moore CB, Howard SJ, Denning DW, Hope WW. Toxicodynamics of itraconazole: implications for therapeutic drug monitoring. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:928-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Nacher M, Sarazin F, El Guedj M, et al. Increased incidence of disseminated histoplasmosis following highly active antiretroviral therapy initiation. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:468-70.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Subedee A, Van Sickels N. Hemophagocytic Syndrome in the Setting of AIDS and Disseminated Histoplasmosis: Case Report and a Review of Literature. J Int Assoc Provid AIDS Care. 2015;14:391-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Tobón AM, Agudelo CA, Rosero DS, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis: a comparative study between patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and non-human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;73:576-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Townsend JL, Shanbhag S, Hancock J, Bowman K, Nijhawan AE. Histoplasmosis-Induced Hemophagocytic Syndrome: A Case Series and Review of the Literature. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015 Apr;2:ofv055.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheat J, MaWhinney S, Hafner R, et al. Treatment of histoplasmosis with fluconazole in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Clinical Trials Group and Mycoses Study Group. Am J Med. 1997;103:223-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheat J, Myint T, Guo Y, et al. Central nervous system histoplasmosis: Multicenter retrospective study on clinical features, diagnostic approach and outcome of treatment. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018;97:e0245.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheat J. Endemic mycoses in AIDS: a clinical review. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1995;8:146-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheat LJ, Connolly-Stringfield PA, Baker RL, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment, and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 1990;69:361-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Wheat LJ. Approach to the diagnosis of the endemic mycoses. Clin Chest Med. 2009;30:379-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Bartonella

Koehler JE, Sanchez MA, Garrido CS, et al. Molecular epidemiology of bartonella infections in patients with bacillary angiomatosis-peliosis. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1876-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee SA, Plett SK, Luetkemeyer AF, et al. Bartonella quintana Aortitis in a Man with AIDS, Diagnosed by Needle Biopsy and 16S rRNA Gene Amplification. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53:2773-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Mosepele M, Mazo D, Cohn J. Bartonella infection in immunocompromised hosts: immunology of vascular infection and vasoproliferation. Clin Dev Immunol. 2012;2012:612809.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Regnery RL, Olson JG, Perkins BA, Bibb W. Serological response to "Rochalimaea henselae" antigen in suspected cat-scratch disease. Lancet. 1992;339:1443-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Koehler JE, Maguina C, Dolan MJ, Raoult D. Recommendations for treatment of human infections caused by Bartonella species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:1921-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Spach DH, Koehler JE. Bartonella-associated infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1998;12:137-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Coccidiomycosis

Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1174-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Dizon D, Mitchell M, Dizon B, Libke R, Peterson MW. The utility of real-time polymerase chain reaction in detecting Coccidioides immitis among clinical specimens in the Central California San Joaquin Valley. Med Mycol. 2019;57:688-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Durkin M, Connolly P, Kuberski T, et al. Diagnosis of coccidioidomycosis with use of the Coccidioides antigen enzyme immunoassay. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:e69-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Durkin M, Estok L, Hospenthal D, et al. Detection of Coccidioides antigenemia following dissociation of immune complexes. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2009;16:1453-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Fish DG, Ampel NM, Galgiani JN, et al. Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection. A review of 77 patients. Medicine (Baltimore). 1990;69:384-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Galgiani JN, Ampel NM, Blair JE, et al. 2016 Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Coccidioidomycosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:e112-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Kassis C, Zaidi S, Kuberski T, et al. Role of Coccidioides Antigen Testing in the Cerebrospinal Fluid for the Diagnosis of Coccidioidal Meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1521-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Kuberski T, Herrig J, Pappagianis D. False-positive IgM serology in coccidioidomycosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48:2047-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Masannat FY, Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in patients with HIV-1 infection in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1-7.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Singh VR, Smith DK, Lawerence J, et al. Coccidioidomycosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: review of 91 cases at a single institution. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:563-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Stockamp NW, Thompson GR 3rd. Coccidioidomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2016;30:229-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Woods CW, McRill C, Plikaytis BD, et al. Coccidioidomycosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons in Arizona, 1994-1997: incidence, risk factors, and prevention. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:1428-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Cryptosporidiosis

Abubakar I, Aliyu SH, Arumugam C, Usman NK, Hunter PR. Treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised individuals: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;63:387-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Amadi B, Mwiya M, Musuku J, et al. Effect of nitazoxanide on morbidity and mortality in Zambian children with cryptosporidiosis: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:1375-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Binnicker MJ. Multiplex Molecular Panels for Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal Infection: Performance, Result Interpretation, and Cost-Effectiveness. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53:3723-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Carr A, Marriott D, Field A, Vasak E, Cooper DA. Treatment of HIV-1-associated microsporidiosis and cryptosporidiosis with combination antiretroviral therapy. Lancet. 1998;351:256-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen XM, Keithly JS, Paya CV, LaRusso NF. Cryptosporodiosis. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346:1723-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen XM, LaRusso NF. Cryptosporidiosis and the pathogenesis of AIDS-cholangiopathy. Semin Liver Dis. 2002;22:277-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Dionisio D, Orsi A, Sterrantino G, et al. Chronic cryptosporidiosis in patients with AIDS: stable remission and possible eradication after long-term, low dose azithromycin. J Clin Pathol. 1998;51:138-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Flanigan T, Whalen C, Turner J, Soave R, Toerner J, Havlir D, Kotler D. Cryptosporidium infection and CD4 counts. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:840-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Garcia LS, Arrowood M, Kokoskin E, et al. Practical Guidance for Clinical Microbiology Laboratories: Laboratory Diagnosis of Parasites from the Gastrointestinal Tract Clin Microbiol Rev. 2017;31:e00025-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Goodgame RW. Understanding intestinal spore-forming protozoa: cryptosporidia, microsporidia, isospora, and cyclospora. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:429-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Hewitt RG, Yiannoutsos CT, Higgs ES, et al. Paromomycin: no more effective than placebo for treatment of cryptosporidiosis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. AIDS Clinical Trial Group. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:1084-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Kadappu KK, Nagaraja MV, Rao PV, Shastry BA. Azithromycin as treatment for cryptosporidiosis in human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Postgrad Med. 2002;48:179-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Miao YM, Awad-El-Kariem FM, Franzen C, et al. Eradication of cryptosporidia and microsporidia following successful antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;25:124-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Roellig DM, Yoder JS, Madison-Antenucci S, et al. Community Laboratory Testing for Cryptosporidium: Multicenter Study Retesting Public Health Surveillance Stool Samples Positive for Cryptosporidium by Rapid Cartridge Assay with Direct Fluorescent Antibody Testing. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0169915.

PubMed Abstract»

Rossignol JF, Hidalgo H, Feregrino M et al. A double-‘blind’ placebo-controlled study of nitazoxanide in the treatment of cryptosporidial diarrhea in AIDS patients in Mexico. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1998;92:663-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Rossignol JF. Nitazoxanide in the treatment of acquired immune deficiency syndrome-related cryptosporidiosis: results of the United States compassionate use program in 365 patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;24:887-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryan U, Paparini A, Oskam C. New Technologies for Detection of Enteric Parasites. Trends Parasitol. 2017;33:532-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Weber R, Bryan RT, Bishop HS, Wahlquist SP, Sullivan JJ, Juranek DD. Threshold of detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in human stool specimens: evidence for low sensitivity of current diagnostic methods. J Clin Microbiol. 1991;29:1323-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Microsporidiosis

Bicart-Sée A, Massip P, Linas MD, Datry A. Successful treatment with nitazoxanide of Enterocytozoon bieneusi microsporidiosis in a patient with AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:167-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Dascomb K, Frazer T, Clark RA, Kissinger P, Didier E. Microsporidiosis and HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;24:290-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Dieterich DT, Lew EA, Kotler DP, Poles MA, Orenstein JM. Treatment with albendazole for intestinal disease due to Enterocytozoon bieneusi in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis. 1994;169:178-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Dionisio D, Manneschi LI, Di Lollo S, et al. Persistent damage to Enterocytozoon bieneusi, with persistent symptomatic relief, after combined furazolidone and albendazole in AIDS patients. J Clin Pathol. 1998;51:731-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Goguel J, Katlama C, Sarfati C, Maslo C, Leport C, Molina JM. Remission of AIDS-associated intestinal microsporidiosis with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 1997;11:1658-9.

PubMed Abstract»

James TY, Pelin A, Bonen L, et al. Shared signatures of parasitism and phylogenomics unite Cryptomycota and microsporidia. Curr Biol. 2013;23:1548-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Miao YM, Awad-El-Kariem FM, Franzen C, et al. Eradication of cryptosporidia and microsporidia following successful antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;25:124-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Chastang C, Goguel J, et al. Albendazole for treatment and prophylaxis of microsporidiosis due to Encephalitozoon intestinalis in patients with AIDS: a randomized double-blind controlled trial. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:1373-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Goguel J, Sarfati C, et al. Trial of oral fumagillin for the treatment of intestinal microsporidiosis in patients with HIV infection. ANRS 054 Study Group. Agence Nationale de Recherche sur le SIDA. AIDS. 2000;14:1341-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Tourneur M, Sarfati C, et al. Fumagillin treatment of intestinal microsporidiosis. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1963-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Module 4 » Lesson 3. Opportunistic Infections: Treatment

Cystoisosporiasis (formerly Isosporiasis)

Barta JR, Schrenzel MD, Carreno R, Rideout BA. The genus Atoxoplasma (Garnham 1950) as a junior objective synonym of the genus Isospora (Schneider 1881) species infecting birds and resurrection of Cystoisospora (Frenkel 1977) as the correct genus for Isospora species infecting mammals. J Parasitol. 2005;91:726-7.

PubMed Abstract»

DeHovitz JA, Pape JW, Boncy M, Johnson WD Jr. Clinical manifestations and therapy of Isospora belli infection in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:87-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Lindsay DS, Dubey JP, Blagburn BL. Biology of Isospora spp. from humans, nonhuman primates, and domestic animals. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997;10:19-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Ng E, Markell EK, Fleming RL, Fried M. Demonstration of Isospora belli by acid-fast stain in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Clin Microbiol. 1984;20:384-6.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pape JW, Johnson WD Jr. Isospora belli infections. Prog Clin Parasitol. 1991;2:119-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Pape JW, Verdier RI, Johnson WD Jr. Treatment and prophylaxis of Isospora belli infection in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1044-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Sorvillo FJ, Lieb LE, Seidel J, Kerndt P, Turner J, Ash LR. Epidemiology of isosporiasis among persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Los Angeles County. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;53:656-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Verdier RI, Fitzgerald DW, Johnson WD Jr, Pape JW. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with ciprofloxacin for treatment and prophylaxis of Isospora belli and Cyclospora cayetanensis infection in HIV-infected patients. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:885-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiss LM, Perlman DC, Sherman J, Tanowitz H, Wittner M. Isospora belli infection: treatment with pyrimethamine. Ann Intern Med. 1988;109:474-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Abubakar I, Aliyu SH, Arumugam C, Hunter PR, Usman NK. Prevention and treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;CD004932.

PubMed Abstract»

Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1174-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Au Eong KG, Beatty S, Charles SJ. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Postgrad Med J. 1999;75:585-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Béraud G, Pierre-François S, Foltzer A, et al. Cotrimoxazole for treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis: an observational cohort study during 1994-2006. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;80:583-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchacz K, Baker RK, Palella FJ Jr, et al. AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses in US patients, 1994-2007: a cohort study. AIDS. 2010;24:1549-59.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii-- Pacific Northwest, 2004-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:865-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). FDA approval of an extended period for administering VariZIG for postexposure prophylaxis of varicella. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61:212.

PubMed Abstract»

da Cunha Colombo ER, Mora DJ, Silva-Vergara ML. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) associated with Cryptococcus neoformans infection in AIDS patients. Mycoses. 2011;54:e178-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Dascomb K, Frazer T, Clark RA, Kissinger P, Didier E. Microsporidiosis and HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;24:290-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Didier ES, Weiss LM. Microsporidiosis: current status. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2006;19:485-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Dieterich DT, Rahmin M. Cytomegalovirus colitis in AIDS: presentation in 44 patients and a review of the literature. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1991;4 Suppl 1:S29-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Dube MP, Sattler FR, Torriani FJ, et al. A randomized evaluation of ethambutol for prevention of relapse and drug resistance during treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex bacteremia with clarithromycin-based combination therapy. California Collaborative Treatment Group. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:1225-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Ferretti F, Bestetti A, Yiannoutsos CT, et al. Diagnostic and Prognostic Value of JC Virus DNA in Plasma in Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:65-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Fessler RD, Sobel J, Guyot L, et al. Management of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with Cryptococcal meningitis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;17:137-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant J. Get Rich Quick With Old Generic Drugs! The Pyrimethamine Pricing Scandal. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:ofv177.

PubMed Abstract»

Hajjeh RA. Disseminated histoplasmosis in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Aug;21 Suppl 1:S108-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Holbrook JT, Kempen JH, Meinert CL, Davis MD. Longitudinal study of the ocular complications of AIDS: 1. Ocular diagnoses at enrollment. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:780-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Jarvis JN, Lawrence DS, Meya DB, et al. Single-Dose Liposomal Amphotericin B Treatment for Cryptococcal Meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:1109-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Kovacs JA, Gill VJ, Meshnick S, Masur H. New insights into transmission, diagnosis, and drug treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. JAMA. 2001;286:2450-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Kovacs JA. Efficacy of atovaquone in treatment of toxoplasmosis in patients with AIDS. The NIAID-Clinical Center Intramural AIDS Program. Lancet. 1992;340:637-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Krause DS, Simjee AE, van Rensburg C, et al. A randomized, double-blind trial of anidulafungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:770-5.

PubMed Abstract»

La Rosa AM, Harrison LJ, Taiwo B, et al. Raltegravir in second-line antiretroviral therapy in resource-limited settings (SELECT): a randomised, phase 3, non-inferiority study. Lancet HIV. 2016;3:e247-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Masannat FY, Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in patients with HIV-1 infection in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1-7.

PubMed Abstract»

McKenney J, Bauman S, Neary B, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and outcomes of cryptococcal antigen positivity among patients with AIDS, United States, 1986-2012. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;60:959-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Molloy SF, Kanyama C, Heyderman RS, et al. Antifungal Combinations for Treatment of Cryptococcal Meningitis in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2018;378:1004-1017.

PubMed Abstract»

Mosepele M, Mazo D, Cohn J. Bartonella infection in immunocompromised hosts: immunology of vascular infection and vasoproliferation. Clin Dev Immunol. 2012;2012:612809.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pape JW, Verdier RI, Johnson WD Jr. Treatment and prophylaxis of Isospora belli infection in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1044-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Candidiasis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:e1-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Park BJ, Wannemuehler KA, Marston BJ, Govender N, Pappas PG, Chiller TM. Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS. 2009;23:525-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Pellegrino D, Gryschek R, de Oliveira ACP, Marcusso R, Correia A, Vidal JE. Efficacy and safety of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in HIV-infected patients with cerebral toxoplasmosis in Brazil: a single-arm open-label clinical trial. Int J STD AIDS. 2019;30:1156-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Perronne C, Lazanas M, Leport C, Simon F, Salmon D, Dallot A, Vildé JL. Varicella in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol. 1990;126:1033-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Powderly WG, Gallant JE, Ghannoum MA, Mayer KH, Navarro EE, Perfect JR. Oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients with HIV: suggested guidelines for therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1999;15:1619-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Prosty C, Hanula R, Levin Y, Bogoch II, McDonald EG, Lee TC. Revisiting the Evidence Base for Modern-Day Practice of the Treatment of Toxoplasmic Encephalitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:e1302-e1319.

PubMed Abstract»

Rex JH, Rinaldi MG, Pfaller MA. Resistance of Candida species to fluconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1995;39:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Koehler JE, Maguina C, Dolan MJ, Raoult D. Recommendations for treatment of human infections caused by Bartonella species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:1921-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Skiest DJ, Vazquez JA, Anstead GM, et al. Posaconazole for the treatment of azole-refractory oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in subjects with HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:607-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith NH, Cron S, Valdez LM, Chappell CL, White AC Jr. Combination drug therapy for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS. J Infect Dis. 1998;178:900-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Spach DH, Koehler JE. Bartonella-associated infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1998;12:137-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Stockamp NW, Thompson GR 3rd. Coccidioidomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2016;30:229-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson GR 3rd, Patel PK, Kirkpatrick WR, et al. Oropharyngeal candidiasis in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109:488-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Torre D, Casari S, Speranza F, et al. Randomized trial of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole versus pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine for therapy of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Italian Collaborative Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:1346-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Uthman MM, Uthman OA, Yahaya I. Interventions for the prevention of Mycobacterium avium complex in adults and children with HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;:CD007191.

PubMed Abstract»

Vibhagool A, Sungkanuparph S, Mootsikapun P, Chetchotisakd P, Tansuphaswaswadikul S, Bowonwatanuwong C, Ingsathit A. Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for cryptococcal meningitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy: a prospective, multicenter, randomized study. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:1329-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Weissert R. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Neuroimmunol. 2011;231:73-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Overview

Barbee LA, Khosropour CM, Dombrowksi JC, Golden MR. New Human Immunodeficiency Virus Diagnosis Independently Associated With Rectal Gonorrhea and Chlamydia in Men Who Have Sex With Men. Sex Transm Dis. 2017;44:385-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:118-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2016. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2018. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2019.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2021. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; April 2023.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Fleming DT, Wasserheit JN. From epidemiological synergy to public health policy and practice: the contribution of other sexually transmitted diseases to sexual transmission of HIV infection. Sex Transm Infect. 1999;75:3-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Mutua FM, M'imunya JM, Wiysonge CS. Genital ulcer disease treatment for reducing sexual acquisition of HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012:CD007933.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Epididymitis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Gonococcal Infections

PubMed Abstract»

Bachmann LH, Johnson RE, Cheng H, et al. Nucleic acid amplification tests for diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis rectal infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48:1827-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Cantor A, Dana T, Griffin JC, Nelson HD, Atchison C, Winthrop KL, Chou R. Screening for chlamydial and gonococcal infections: a systematic review update for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Evidence Synthesis No. 206. AHRQ Publication No. 21-05275-EF-1. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2021.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Recommendations for the laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae--2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2017. Gonorrhea. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; September 2018.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2018. Gonorrhea. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; October 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2019. Gonorrhea. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; April 2021.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2016. Gonorrhea. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2021. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; April 2023.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Chesson HW, Pinkerton SD. Sexually transmitted diseases and the increased risk for HIV transmission: implications for cost-effectiveness analyses of sexually transmitted disease prevention interventions. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;24:48-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Gadde J, Spence M, Wheeler B, Adkinson NF Jr. Clinical experience with penicillin skin testing in a large inner-city STD clinic. JAMA. 1993;270:2456-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Harris SR, Cole MJ, Spiteri G, et al. Public health surveillance of multidrug-resistant clones of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Europe: a genomic survey. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18:758-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Lea CS, Perez-Heydrich C, Des Marais AC, et al. Predictors of Cervical Cancer Screening Among Infrequently Screened Women Completing Human Papillomavirus Self-Collection: My Body My Test-1. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2019;28:1094-1104.

PubMed Abstract»

Lunny C, Taylor D, Hoang L, et al. Self-Collected versus Clinician-Collected Sampling for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Screening: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0132776.

PubMed Abstract»

Masek BJ, Arora N, Quinn N, et al. Performance of three nucleic acid amplification tests for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae by use of self-collected vaginal swabs obtained via an Internet-based screening program. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:1663-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Mcclelland RS, Wang CC, Mandaliya K, et al. Treatment of cervicitis is associated with decreased cervical shedding of HIV-1. AIDS. 2001;15;105-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Moran JS. Treating uncomplicated Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections; is the anatomic site of infection important? Sex Transm Dis. 1995;22:39-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Novalbos A, Sastre J, Cuesta J, et al. Lack of allergic cross-reactivity to cephalosporins among patients allergic to penicillins. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31:438-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Ross JDC, Brittain C, Cole M, et al. Gentamicin compared with ceftriaxone for the treatment of gonorrhoea (G-ToG): a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2019;393:2511-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Sexton ME, Baker JJ, Nakagawa K, et al. How reliable is self-testing for gonorrhea and chlamydia among men who have sex with men? J Fam Pract. 2013;62:70-8.

PubMed Abstract»

St Cyr S, Barbee L, Workowski KA, et al. Update to CDC's Treatment Guidelines for Gonococcal Infection, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:1911-6.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA clears first diagnostic tests for extragenital testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea. FDA news release. May 23, 2019.

U.S. FDA»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Gonococcal infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Gonococcal infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Chlamydial Infections

PubMed Abstract»

Barbee LA, Tat S, Dhanireddy S, Marrazzo JM. Implementation and Operational Research: Effectiveness and Patient Acceptability of a Sexually Transmitted Infection Self-Testing Program in an HIV Care Setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72:e26-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Bernstein KT, Stephens SC, Barry PM, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae transmission from the oropharynx to the urethra among men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1793-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Recommendations for the laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae--2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2017. Chlamydia. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; September 2018.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2018. Chlamydia. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; October 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2019. Chlamydia. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; April 2021.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2016. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2016. Chlamydia. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2021. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; April 2023.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Chernesky MA, Hook EW 3rd, Martin DH, et al. Women find it easy and prefer to collect their own vaginal swabs to diagnose Chlamydia trachomatis or Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32:729-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Ciemins EL, Flood J, Shaw H, et al. Reexamining the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis infection among gay men with urethritis: implications for STD policy and HIV prevention activities. Sex Transm Dis. 2000;27:249-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Des Marais AC, Zhao Y, Hobbs MM, et al. Home Self-Collection by Mail to Test for Human Papillomavirus and Sexually Transmitted Infections. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;132:1412-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Dodge B, Van Der Pol B, Reece M, et al. Rectal self-sampling in non-clinical venues for detection of sexually transmissible infections among behaviourally bisexual men. Sex Health. 2012;9:190-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Dombrowski JC, Wierzbicki MR, Newman LM, et al. Doxycycline versus azithromycin for the treatment of rectal chlamydia in men who have sex with men: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:824-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Doshi JS, Power J, Allen E. Acceptability of chlamydia screening using self-taken vaginal swabs. Int J STD AIDS. 2008;19:507-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Falk L, Coble BI, Mjörnberg PA, Fredlund H. Sampling for Chlamydia trachomatis infection - a comparison of vaginal, first-catch urine, combined vaginal and first-catch urine and endocervical sampling. Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21:283-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Geisler WM, Uniyal A, Lee JY, et al. Azithromycin versus doxycycline for urogenital Chlamydia trachomatis infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2512-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Khosropour CM, Dombrowski JC, Barbee LA, Manhart LE, Golden MR. Comparing azithromycin and doxycycline for the treatment of rectal chlamydial infection: a retrospective cohort study. Sex Transm Dis. 2014;41:79-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Knox J, Tabrizi SN, Miller P, et al. Evaluation of self-collected samples in contrast to practitioner-collected samples for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Trichomonas vaginalis by polymerase chain reaction among women living in remote areas. Sex Transm Dis. 2002;29:647-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Lau A, Kong FYS, Fairley CK, et al. Azithromycin or doxycycline for asymptomatic rectal Chlamydia trachomatis. N Engl J Med. 2021;384:2418-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Lau CY, Qureshi AK. Azithromycin versus doxycycline for genital chlamydial infections: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Sex Transm Dis. 2002;29:497-502.

PubMed Abstract»

Marcus JL, Kohn RP, Barry PM, Philip SS, Bernstein KT. Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae transmission from the female oropharynx to the male urethra. Sex Transm Dis. 2011;38:372-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, Scholes D. Acceptability of urine-based screening for Chlamydia trachomatis in asymptomatic young men: a systematic review. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35:S28-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Mcclelland RS, Wang CC, Mandaliya K, et al. Treatment of cervicitis is associated with decreased cervical shedding of HIV-1. AIDS. 2001;15;105-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Park J, Marcus JL, Pandori M, Snell A, Philip SS, Bernstein KT. Sentinel surveillance for pharyngeal chlamydia and gonorrhea among men who have sex with men--San Francisco, 2010. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:482-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Sexton ME, Baker JJ, Nakagawa K, et al. How reliable is self-testing for gonorrhea and chlamydia among men who have sex with men? J Fam Pract. 2013;62:70-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Thorpe EM Jr, Stamm WE, Hook EW 3rd, et al. Chlamydial cervicitis and urethritis: single dose treatment compared with doxycycline for seven days in community based practises. Genitourin Med. 1996;72:93-7.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA clears first diagnostic tests for extragenital testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea. FDA news release. May 23, 2019.

U.S. FDA»

van der Helm JJ, Hoebe CJ, van Rooijen MS, et al. High performance and acceptability of self-collected rectal swabs for diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in men who have sex with men and women. Sex Transm Dis. 2009;36:493-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Chlamydial infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Chlamydial infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Gonococcal infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Lymphogranuloma Venereum

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Recommendations for the laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae--2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen CY, Chi KH, Alexander S, Ison CA, Ballard RC. A real-time quadriplex PCR assay for the diagnosis of rectal lymphogranuloma venereum and non-lymphogranuloma venereum Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Sex Transm Infect. 2008;84:273-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Childs T, Simms I, Alexander S, Eastick K, Hughes G, Field N. Rapid increase in lymphogranuloma venereum in men who have sex with men, United Kingdom, 2003 to September 2015. Euro Surveill. 2015;20:30076.

PubMed Abstract»

de Voux A, Kent JB, Macomber K, et al. Notes from the Field: Cluster of Lymphogranuloma Venereum Cases Among Men Who Have Sex with Men - Michigan, August 2015-April 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:920-1.

PubMed Abstract»

de Vries HJ. Skin as an indicator for sexually transmitted infections. Clin Dermatol. 2014;32:196-208.

PubMed Abstract»

de Vries HJC. Lymphoganuloma venereum in the Western world, 15 years after its re-emergence: new perspectives and research priorities. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2019;32:43-50.

PubMed Abstract»

de Vrieze NH, de Vries HJ. Lymphogranuloma venereum among men who have sex with men. An epidemiological and clinical review. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2014;12:697-704.

PubMed Abstract»

Koper NE, van der Sande MA, Gotz HM, Koedijk FD. Lymphogranuloma venereum among men who have sex with men in the Netherlands: regional differences in testing rates lead to underestimation of the incidence, 2006-2012. Euro Surveill. 2013;18 (34).pii: 20561.

PubMed Abstract»

Richardson D, Goldmeier D. Lymphogranuloma venerum: an emerging cause of proctitis in men who have sex with men. Int J STD AIDS. 2007;18;11-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Stoner BP, Cohen SE. Lymphogranuloma Venereum 2015: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61 Suppl 8:S865-73.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA clears first diagnostic tests for extragenital testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea. FDA news release. May 23, 2019.

U.S. FDA»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Epididymitis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases Characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Syphilis

PubMed Abstract»

Bachmann LH, Hobbs MM, Seña AC, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis genital infections: progress and challenges. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53 Suppl 3:S160-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Bai ZG, Wang B, Yang K, et al. Azithromycin versus penicillin G benzathine for early syphilis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;6:CD007270.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Discordant results from reverse sequence syphilis screening--five laboratories, United States, 2006-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:133-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Recommendations for the laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae--2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2016. Syphilis. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2017. Syphilis. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2018.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2018. Syphilis. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; October 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2019. Syphilis. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; April 2021.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2016. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2018. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2019.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2021. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; April 2023.

CDC STD Surveillance»

de Vries HJ. Skin as an indicator for sexually transmitted infections. Clin Dermatol. 2014;32:196-208.

PubMed Abstract»

Dumaresq J, Langevin S, Gagnon S, et al. Clinical prediction and diagnosis of neurosyphilis in HIV-infected patients with early Syphilis. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51:4060-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Firlag-Burkacka E, Swiecki P, Cielniak I, et al. High frequency of neurosyphilis in HIV-positive patients diagnosed with early syphilis. HIV Med. 2016;17:323-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghanem KG, Moore RD, Rompalo AM, Erbelding EJ, Zenilman JM, Gebo KA. Lumbar puncture in HIV-infected patients with syphilis and no neurologic symptoms. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:816-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghanem KG. Management of Adult Syphilis: Key Questions to Inform the 2015 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61 Suppl 8:S818-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Katz KA, Klausner JD. Azithromycin resistance in Treponema pallidum. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:83-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Kidd SE, Grey JA, Torrone EA, Weinstock HS. Increased Methamphetamine, Injection Drug, and Heroin Use Among Women and Heterosexual Men with Primary and Secondary Syphilis - United States, 2013-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:144-148.

PubMed Abstract»

Knaute DF, Graf N, Lautenschlager S, Weber R, Bosshard PP. Serological response to treatment of syphilis according to disease stage and HIV status. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1615-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Marra CM, Maxwell CL, Smith SL, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities in patients with syphilis: association with clinical and laboratory features. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:369-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Marra CM. Déjà vu all over again: when to perform a lumbar puncture in HIV-infected patients with syphilis. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:145-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Muldoon EG, Mooka B, Reidy D, et al. Long-term neurological follow-up of HIV-positive patients diagnosed with syphilis. Int J STD AIDS. 2012;23:676-8.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rolfs RT, Joesoef MR, Hendershot EF, et al. A randomized trial of enhanced therapy for early syphilis in patients with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Syphilis and HIV Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997;337:307-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Rompalo AM, Joesoef MR, O'Donnell JA, et al. Clinical manifestations of early syphilis by HIV status and gender: results of the syphilis and HIV study. Sex Transm Dis. 2001;28:158-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Trivedi S, Williams C, Torrone E, Kidd S. National Trends and Reported Risk Factors Among Pregnant Women With Syphilis in the United States, 2012-2016. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;133:27-32.

PubMed Abstract»

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Syphilis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Syphilis in persons with HIV infection. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Syphilis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Chancroid

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2017. Other STDs. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; September 2018.

CDC Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2019. Syphilis. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; April 2021.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2018. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2019.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance, 2021. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; April 2023.

CDC STD Surveillance»

Lockett AE, Dance DA, Mabey DC, Drasar BS. Serum-free media for isolation of Haemophilus ducreyi. Lancet. 1991;338:326.

PubMed Abstract»

Mohammed TT, Olumide YM. Chancroid and human immunodeficiency virus infection--a review. Int J Dermatol. 2008;47:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilkin T, Lee JY, Lensing SY, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in HIV-1-infected men. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1246-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: chancroid. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: Chancroid. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Genital Herpes

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:427-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Corey L, Wald A, Patel R, et al. Once-daily valacyclovir to reduce the risk of transmission of genital herpes. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:11-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany S, Mlaba N, Clayton T, et al. Impact of aciclovir on genital and plasma HIV-1 RNA in HSV-2/HIV-1 co-infected women: a randomized placebo-controlled trial in South Africa. AIDS. 2009;23:461-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Erlich KS, Mills J, Chatis P, et al. Acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus infections in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:293-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Keating TM, Kurth AE, Wald A, Kahle EM, Barash EA, Buskin SE. Clinical burden of herpes simplex virus disease in people with human immunodeficiency virus. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:372-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Levin MJ, Bacon TH, Leary JJ. Resistance of herpes simplex virus infections to nucleoside analogues in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39 Suppl 5:S248-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Moriuchi M, Moriuchi H, Williams R, Straus SE. Herpes simplex virus infection induces replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology. 2000;278:534-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Nagot N, Ouédraogo A, Foulongne V, et al. Reduction of HIV-1 RNA levels with therapy to suppress herpes simplex virus. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:790-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Patel P, Bush T, Mayer KH, et al. Prevalence and risk factors associated with herpes simplex virus-2 infection in a contemporary cohort of HIV-infected persons in the United States. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:154-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Posavad CM, Wald A, Kuntz S, et al. Frequent reactivation of herpes simplex virus among HIV-1-infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2004;190:693-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Pottage JC Jr, Kessler HA. Herpes simplex virus resistance to acyclovir: clinical relevance. Infect Agents Dis. 1995;4:115-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Reyes M, Shaik NS, Graber JM, et al. Acyclovir-resistant genital herpes among persons attending sexually transmitted disease and human immunodeficiency virus clinics. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:76-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Scoular A. Using the evidence base on genital herpes: optimising the use of diagnostic tests and information provision. Sex Transm Infect. 2002;78:160-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Strick LB, Wald A, Celum C. Management of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in HIV type 1-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:347-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Tobian AA, Grabowski MK, Serwadda D, et al. Reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 2 after initiation of antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2013;208:839-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Der Pol B, Warren T, Taylor SN, et al. Type-specific identification of anogenital herpes simplex virus infections by use of a commercially available nucleic acid amplification test. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:3466-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Wald A, Huang ML, Carrell D, Selke S, Corey L. Polymerase chain reaction for detection of herpes simplex virus (HSV) DNA on mucosal surfaces: comparison with HSV isolation in cell culture. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:1345-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: Genital HSV infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Human Papillomavirus and Anogenital Warts

MMWR»

Chaturvedi AK, Madeleine MM, Biggar RJ, Engels EA. Risk of human papillomavirus-associated cancers among persons with AIDS. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009; 101:1120-30.

PubMed Abstract»

De Panfilis G, Melzani G, Mori G, Ghidini A, Graifemberghi S. Relapses after treatment of external genital warts are more frequent in HIV-positive patients than HIV-negative controls. Sex Transm Dis. 2002;29;121-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Dolev JC, Maurer T, Springer G, et al. Incidence and risk factors for verrucae in women. AIDS. 2008;22:1213-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Geskus RB, González C, Torres M, et al. Incidence and clearance of anal high-risk human papillomavirus in HIV-positive men who have sex with men: estimates and risk factors. AIDS. 2016;30:37-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenspan D, Canchola AJ, MacPhail LA, Cheikh B, Greenspan JS. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on frequency of oral warts. Lancet. 2001;357(9266):1411-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JA, Xu J, Kapogiannis BG, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of the human papillomavirus 6, 11, 16, 18 vaccine in HIV-infected young women. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:735-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Kojic EM, Kang M, Cespedes MS, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of the quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in HIV-1-infected women. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:127-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Meys R, Gotch FM, Bunker CB. Human papillomavirus in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus: an immune reconstitution-associated disease? Br J Dermatol. 2010;162:6-11.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration: FDA News Release. FDA approves expanded use of Gardasil 9 to include individuals 27 through 45 years old. October 5, 2018.

U.S. FDA»

Wilkin T, Lee JY, Lensing SY, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in HIV-1-infected men. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1246-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection: HPV-associated cancers and precancers. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Anogenital warts. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. HPV-associated cancers and precancers. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Trichomoniasis

PubMed Abstract»

Bachmann LH, Hobbs MM, Seña AC, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis genital infections: progress and challenges. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53 Suppl 3:S160-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Dize L, Agreda P, Quinn N, Barnes MR, Hsieh YH, Gaydos CA. Comparison of self-obtained penile-meatal swabs to urine for the detection of C. trachomatis, N. gonorrhoeae and T. vaginalis. Sex Transm Infect. 2013;89:305-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Fouts AC, Kraus SJ. Trichomonas vaginalis: reevaluation of its clinical presentation and laboratory diagnosis. J Infect Dis. 1980;141:137-143.

PubMed Abstract»

Kissinger P, Mena L, Levison J, et al. A randomized trial: a single versus 7-day dose of metronidazole for the treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis among HIV-infected women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55;565-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Kissinger P, Muzny CA, Mena LA, et al. Single-dose versus 7-day-dose metronidazole for the treatment of trichomoniasis in women: an open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18:1251-9.

PubMed Abstract»

McClelland RS, Sangare L, Hassan WM, et al. Infection with Trichomonas vaginalis increases the risk of HIV-1 acquisition. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:698-702.

PubMed Abstract»

Mullins TL, Rudy BJ, Wilson CM, Sucharew H, Kahn JA. Incidence of sexually transmitted infections in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected adolescents in the USA. Int J STD AIDS. 2013;24:123-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Muzny CA, Blackburn RJ, Sinsky RJ, Austin EL, Schwebke JR. Added benefit of nucleic acid amplification testing for the diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalisamong men and women attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:834-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Petrin D, Delgaty K, Bhatt R, Garber G. Clinical and microbiological aspects of Trichomonas vaginalis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998;11:300-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Price MA, Miller WC, Kaydos-Daniels SC, et al. Trichomoniasis in men and HIV infection: data from 2 outpatient clinics at Lilongwe Central Hospital, Malawi. J Infect Dis. 2004;190:1448-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Roth AM, Williams JA, Ly R, et al. Changing sexually transmitted infection screening protocol will result in improved case finding for trichomonas vaginalis among high-risk female populations. Sex Transm Dis. 2011;38:398-400.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by vaginal itching, burning, irritation, odor or discharge: trichomoniasis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by vaginal discharge: Trichomoniasis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 4 » Lesson 4. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Additional Topics

Berger RE, Kessler D, Holmes KK. Etiology and manifestations of epididymitis in young men: correlations with sexual orientation. J Infect Dis. 1987;155:1341-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Pitt RA, Alexander S, Horner PJ, Ison CA. Presentation of clinically suspected persistent chlamydial infection: a case series. Int J STD AIDS. 2013;24:469-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Rietmeijer CA, Mettenbrink CJ. Recalibrating the Gram stain diagnosis of male urethritis in the era of nucleic acid amplification testing. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:18-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Schwebke JR, Rompalo A, Taylor S, et al. Re-evaluating the treatment of nongonococcal urethritis: emphasizing emerging pathogens--a randomized clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:163-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Seña AC, Lensing S, Rompalo A, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma genitalium, and Trichomonas vaginalis infections in men with nongonococcal urethritis: predictors and persistence after therapy. J Infect Dis. 2012;206:357-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor SN, Lensing S, Schwebke J, et al. Prevalence and treatment outcome of cervicitis of unknown etiology. Sex Transm Dis. 2014;40:379-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Trojian TH, Lishnak TS, Heiman D. Epididymitis and orchitis: an overview. Am Fam Physician. 2009;79:583-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Mycoplasma genitalium. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by urethritis and cervicitis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Epididymitis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Proctitis, proctocolitis, and enteritis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by urethritis and cervicitis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Emerging Issues. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Epididymitis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Proctitis, protocolitis, and enteritis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

PubMed Abstract»

Blanshard C, Benhamou Y, Dohin E, Lernestedt JO, Gazzard BG, Katlama C.Treatment of AIDS-associated gastrointestinal cytomegalovirus infection with foscarnet and ganciclovir: a randomized comparison. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:622-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:427-39.

PubMed Abstract»

de Vries HJ. Skin as an indicator for sexually transmitted infections. Clin Dermatol. 2014;32:196-208.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany S, Mlaba N, Clayton T, et al. Impact of aciclovir on genital and plasma HIV-1 RNA in HSV-2/HIV-1 co-infected women: a randomized placebo-controlled trial in South Africa. AIDS. 2009;23:461-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Dolev JC, Maurer T, Springer G, et al. Incidence and risk factors for verrucae in women. AIDS. 2008;22:1213-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenspan D, Canchola AJ, MacPhail LA, Cheikh B, Greenspan JS. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on frequency of oral warts. Lancet. 2001;357(9266):1411-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Joura EA, Giuliano AR, Iversen OE, et al. A 9-valent HPV vaccine against infection and intraepithelial neoplasia in women. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:711-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JA, Xu J, Kapogiannis BG, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of the human papillomavirus 6, 11, 16, 18 vaccine in HIV-infected young women. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:735-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Levin MJ, Bacon TH, Leary JJ. Resistance of herpes simplex virus infections to nucleoside analogues in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39 Suppl 5:S248-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Marra CM, Maxwell CL, Smith SL, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities in patients with syphilis: association with clinical and laboratory features. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:369-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Moriuchi M, Moriuchi H, Williams R, Straus SE. Herpes simplex virus infection induces replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology. 2000;278:534-40.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Quilter L, Dhanireddy S, Marrazzo J. Prevention of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in HIV-Infected Individuals. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2017;14:41-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Reyes M, Shaik NS, Graber JM, et al. Acyclovir-resistant genital herpes among persons attending sexually transmitted disease and human immunodeficiency virus clinics. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:76-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Strick LB, Wald A, Celum C. Management of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in HIV type 1-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:347-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor D, Lunny C, Wong T, et al. Self-collected versus clinician-collected sampling for sexually transmitted infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. Syst Rev. 2013;2:93.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA clears first diagnostic tests for extragenital testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea. FDA news release. May 23, 2019.

U.S. FDA»

Wilkin T, Lee JY, Lensing SY, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in HIV-1-infected men. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1246-53.

PubMed Abstract»

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by vaginal itching, burning, irritation, odor or discharge: bacterial vaginosis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Zolopa AR, Berger DS, Lampiris H, et al. Activity of elvitegravir, a once-daily integrase inhibitor, against resistant HIV Type 1: results of a phase 2, randomized, controlled, dose-ranging clinical trial. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:814-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Background

Alejos B, Hernando V, López-Aldeguer J, et al. Overall and cause-specific mortality in HIV-positive subjects compared to the general population. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19711.

PubMed Abstract»

Alter MJ. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S6-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Bräu N, Fox RK, Xiao P, et al. Presentation and outcome of hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients: a U.S.-Canadian multicenter study. J Hepatol. 2007;47:527-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Chun HM, Mesner O, Thio CL, et al. HIV outcomes in Hepatitis B virus coinfected individuals on HAART. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;66:197-205.

PubMed Abstract»

Colin JF, Cazals-Hatem D, Loriot MA, et al. Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on chronic hepatitis B in homosexual men. Hepatology. 1999;29:1306-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Falade-Nwulia O, Seaberg EC, Rinaldo CR, Badri S, Witt M, Thio CL. Comparative risk of liver-related mortality from chronic hepatitis B versus chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:507-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Falade-Nwulia O, Seaberg EC, Snider AE, et al. Incident Hepatitis B Virus Infection in HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Men Who Have Sex With Men From Pre-HAART to HAART Periods: A Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163:673-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghany MG, Perrillo R, Li R, et al. Characteristics of adults in the hepatitis B research network in North America reflect their country of origin and hepatitis B virus genotype. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2015;13:183-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Hernando V, Perez-Cachafeiro S, Lewden C, et al. All-cause and liver-related mortality in HIV positive subjects compared to the general population: differences by HCV co-infection. J Hepatol. 2012;57:743-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoffmann CJ, Charalambous S, Martin DJ, et al. Hepatitis B virus infection and response to antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a South African ART program. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:1479-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoover KW, Butler M, Workowski KA, et al. Low rates of hepatitis screening and vaccination of HIV-infected MSM in HIV clinics. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:349-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Idoko J, Meloni S, Muazu M, et al. Impact of hepatitis B virus infection on human immunodeficiency virus response to antiretroviral therapy in Nigeria. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1268-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Konopnicki D, Mocroft A, de Wit S, et al. Hepatitis B and HIV: prevalence, AIDS progression, response to highly active antiretroviral therapy and increased mortality in the EuroSIDA cohort. AIDS. 2005;19:593-601.

PubMed Abstract»

Lewden C, Salmon D, Morlat P, et al. Causes of death among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: emerging role of hepatitis and cancers, persistent role of AIDS. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:121-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Lok AS, McMahon BJ. Chronic hepatitis B: update 2009. Hepatology. 2009;50:661-2.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Nikolopoulos GK, Paraskevis D, Hatzitheodorou E, et al. Impact of hepatitis B virus infection on the progression of AIDS and mortality in HIV-infected individuals: a cohort study and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1763-71.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Salmon-Ceron D, Rosenthal E, Lewden C, et al. Emerging role of hepatocellular carcinoma among liver-related causes of deaths in HIV-infected patients: The French national Mortalité 2005 study. J Hepatol. 2009;50:736-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Schillie S, Vellozzi C, Reingold A, et al. Prevention of Hepatitis B Virus Infection in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2018;67:1-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Smit C, Geskus R, Walker S, et al. Effective therapy has altered the spectrum of cause-specific mortality following HIV seroconversion. AIDS. 2006;20:741-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Soriano V, Puoti M, Peters M, et al. Care of HIV patients with chronic hepatitis B: updated recommendations from the HIV-Hepatitis B Virus International Panel. AIDS. 2008;22:1399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Spradling PR, Richardson JT, Buchacz K, Moorman AC, Brooks JT; HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) Investigators. Prevalence of chronic hepatitis B virus infection among patients in the HIV Outpatient Study, 1996-2007. J Viral Hepat. 2010;17:879-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Sunbul M. Hepatitis B virus genotypes: global distribution and clinical importance. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20:5427-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018;67:1560-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Thio CL, Seaberg EC, Skolasky R Jr, et al. HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, and risk of liver-related mortality in the Multicenter Cohort Study (MACS). Lancet. 2002;360:1921-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Thio CL. Hepatitis B and human immunodeficiency virus coinfection. Hepatology. 2009;49:S138-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Thornton AC, Jose S, Bhagani S, et al. Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and mortality among HIV-positive individuals. AIDS. 2017;31:2525-2532.

PubMed Abstract»

Weber R, Sabin CA, Friis-Møller N, et al. Liver-related deaths in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: the D:A:D study. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1632-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiser J, Perez A, Bradley H, King H, Shouse RL. Low Prevalence of Hepatitis B Vaccination Among Patients Receiving Medical Care for HIV Infection in the United States, 2009 to 2012. Ann Intern Med. 2018;168:245-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Screening for HBV in Persons with HIV

Abdullahi A, Fopoussi OM, Torimiro J, Atkins M, Kouanfack C, Geretti AM. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection and Re-activation During Nucleos(t)ide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor-Sparing Antiretroviral Therapy in a High-HBV Endemicity Setting. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5:ofy251.

PubMed Abstract»

HIVMA»

French AL, Operskalski E, Peters M, et al. Isolated hepatitis B core antibody is associated with HIV and ongoing but not resolved hepatitis C virus infection in a cohort of US women. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:1437-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Gandhi RT, Wurcel A, Lee H, et al. Response to hepatitis B vaccine in HIV-1-positive subjects who test positive for isolated antibody to hepatitis B core antigen: implications for hepatitis B vaccine strategies. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1435-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Ganem D, Prince AM. Hepatitis B virus infection--natural history and clinical consequences. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1118-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee WM. Hepatitis B virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1733-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Mast EE, Margolis HS, Fiore AE, et al. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) part 1: immunization of infants, children, and adolescents. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54:1-31.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Palacios R, Mata R, Hidalgo A, et al. Very low prevalence and no clinical significance of occult hepatitis B in a cohort of HIV-infected patients with isolated anti-HBc seropositivity: the BHOI study. HIV Clin Trials. 2008;9:337-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections: hepatitis B virus/HIV coinfection. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Piroth L, Launay O, Miailhes P, Carrat F, Rey D. Patients With Isolated Hepatitis B Core Antibody: Has the Time Come to Vaccinate? Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:317-318.

PubMed Abstract»

Stramer SL, Wend U, Candotti D, et al. Nucleic acid testing to detect HBV infection in blood donors. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:236-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018;67:1560-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Witt MD, Lewis RJ, Rieg G, Seaberg EC, Rinaldo CR, Thio CL. Predictors of the isolated hepatitis B core antibody pattern in HIV-infected and -uninfected men in the multicenter AIDS cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:606-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Initial Evaluation of Persons with HBV and HIV Coinfection

Bruix J, Sherman M. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma: an update. Hepatology. 2011 Mar;53:1020-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen CJ, Yang HI, Su J, et al. Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma across a biological gradient of serum hepatitis B virus DNA level. JAMA. 2006;295:65-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Ferrante ND, Kallan MJ, Sukkestad S, et al. Prevalence and determinants of hepatitis delta virus infection among HIV/hepatitis B-coinfected adults in care in the United States. J Viral Hepat. 2023;30:879-88.

PubMed Abstract»

Garcia-Tsao G, Sanyal AJ, Grace ND, Carey WD. Prevention and management of gastroesophageal varices and variceal hemorrhage in cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:2086-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Heimbach JK, Kulik LM, Finn RS, et al. AASLD guidelines for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2018;67:358-380.

PubMed Abstract»

Iloeje UH, Yang HI, Su J, Jen CL, You SL, Chen CJ. Predicting cirrhosis risk based on the level of circulating hepatitis B viral load. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:678-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Y, Huang YS, Wang ZZ, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the diagnostic accuracy of transient elastography for the staging of liver fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2016;43:458-69.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Terrault NA, Bzowej NH, Chang KM, Hwang JP, Jonas MM, Murad MH. AASLD guidelines for treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2016;63:261-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018;67:1560-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Treatment of HBV and HIV in Persons with HIV and HBV Coinfection

Alvarez-Uria G, Ratcliffe L, Vilar J. Long-term outcome of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate use against hepatitis B in an HIV-coinfected cohort. HIV Med. 2009;10:269-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Avihingsanon A, Lewin SR, Kerr S, et al. Efficacy of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine compared with emtricitabine alone in antiretroviral-naive HIV-HBV coinfection in Thailand. Antivir Ther. 2010;15:917-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Benhamou Y, Tubiana R, Thibault V. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in patients with HIV and lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B virus. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:177-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Buti M, Gane E, Seto WK, et al. Tenofovir alafenamide versus tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for the treatment of patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;1:196-206.

PubMed Abstract»

Chan HL, Fung S, Seto WK, et al. Tenofovir alafenamide versus tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for the treatment of HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;1:185-195.

PubMed Abstract»

Collins JM, Raphael KL, Terry C, et al. Hepatitis B Virus Reactivation During Successful Treatment of Hepatitis C Virus With Sofosbuvir and Simeprevir. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1304-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Cooley L, Ayres A, Bartholomeusz A, et al. Prevalence and characterization of lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B virus mutations in HIV-HBV co-infected individuals. AIDS. 2003;17:1649-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Corsa AC, Liu Y, Flaherty JF, et al. No resistance to tenofovir disoproxil fumarate through 96 weeks of treatment in patients with lamivudine-resistant chronic hepatitis B. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;12:2106-12.e1.

PubMed Abstract»

De Monte A, Courjon J, Anty R, et al. Direct-acting antiviral treatment in adults infected with hepatitis C virus: Reactivation of hepatitis B virus coinfection as a further challenge. J Clin Virol. 2016;78:27-30.

PubMed Abstract»

de Vries-Sluijs TE, Reijnders JG, Hansen BE, et al. Long-term therapy with tenofovir is effective for patients co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus. Gastroenterology. 2010;139:1934-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Di Martino V, Thevenot T, Colin JF, et al. Influence of HIV infection on the response to interferon therapy and the long-term outcome of chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology. 2002;123:1812-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghany MG. Current treatment guidelines of chronic hepatitis B: The role of nucleos(t)ide analogues and peginterferon. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2017;31:299-309.

PubMed Abstract»

Iser DM, Sasadeusz JJ. Current treatment of HIV/hepatitis B virus coinfection. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;23:699-706.

PubMed Abstract»

Kosi L, Reiberger T, Payer BA, et al. Five-year on-treatment efficacy of lamivudine-, tenofovir- and tenofovir + emtricitabine-based HAART in HBV-HIV-coinfected patients. J Viral Hepat. 2012;19:801-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Lampertico P, Buti M, Fung S, et al. Switching from tenofovir disoproxil fumarate to tenofovir alafenamide in virologically suppressed patients with chronic hepatitis B: a randomised, double-blind, phase 3, multicentre non-inferiority study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;5:441-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Lange CM, Bojunga J, Hofmann WP, et al. Severe lactic acidosis during treatment of chronic hepatitis B with entecavir in patients with impaired liver function. Hepatology. 2009;50:2001-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Liaw YF, Sheen IS, Lee CM, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), emtricitabine/TDF, and entecavir in patients with decompensated chronic hepatitis B liver disease. Hepatology. 2011;53:62-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Lok AS, McMahon BJ. Chronic hepatitis B: update 2009. Hepatology. 2009;50:661-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Matthews GV, Avihingsanon A, Lewin SR, et al. A randomized trial of combination hepatitis B therapy in HIV/HBV coinfected antiretroviral naïve individuals in Thailand. Hepatology. 2008;48:1062-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Matthews GV, Bartholomeusz A, Locarnini S, et al. Characteristics of drug resistant HBV in an international collaborative study of HIV-HBV-infected individuals on extended lamivudine therapy. AIDS. 2006;20:863-70.

PubMed Abstract»

McMahon MA, Jilek BL, Brennan TP, et al. The HBV drug entecavir - effects on HIV-1 replication and resistance. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2614-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Núñez M, Pérez-Olmeda M, Díaz B, Ríos P, González-Lahoz J, Soriano V. Activity of tenofovir on hepatitis B virus replication in HIV-co-infected patients failing or partially responding to lamivudine. AIDS. 2002;16:2352-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Núñez M, Ramos B, Díaz-Pollán B, et al. Virological outcome of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in HIV-coinfected patients receiving anti-HBV active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2006;22:842-8.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections: hepatitis B (HBV)/HIV coinfection. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Peters MG, Andersen J, Lynch P, et al. Randomized controlled study of tenofovir and adefovir in chronic hepatitis B virus and HIV infection: ACTG A5127. Hepatology. 2006;44:1110-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Puoti M, Torti C, Bruno R, Filice G, Carosi G. Natural history of chronic hepatitis B in co-infected patients. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S65-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Ratcliffe L, Beadsworth MB, Pennell A, Phillips M, Vilar FJ. Managing hepatitis B/HIV co-infected: adding entecavir to truvada (tenofovir disoproxil/emtricitabine) experienced patients. AIDS. 2011;25:1051-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Ristig MB, Crippin J, Aberg JA, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate therapy for chronic hepatitis B in human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis B virus-coinfected individuals for whom interferon-alpha and lamivudine therapy have failed. J Infect Dis. 2002;186:1844-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Sasadeusz J, Audsley J, Mijch A, et al. The anti-HIV activity of entecavir: a multicentre evaluation of lamivudine-experienced and lamivudine-naive patients. AIDS. 2008;22:947-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Soriano V, Puoti M, Peters M, et al. Care of HIV patients with chronic hepatitis B: updated recommendations from the HIV-Hepatitis B Virus International Panel. AIDS. 2008;22:1399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Takayama H, Sato T, Ikeda F, Fujiki S. Reactivation of hepatitis B virus during interferon-free therapy with daclatasvir and asunaprevir in patient with hepatitis B virus/hepatitis C virus co-infection. Hepatol Res. 2016;46:489-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Terrault NA, Bzowej NH, Chang KM, Hwang JP, Jonas MM, Murad MH. AASLD guidelines for treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2016;63:261-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018;67:1560-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Thio CL, Seaberg EC, Skolasky R Jr, et al. HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, and risk of liver-related mortality in the Multicenter Cohort Study (MACS). Lancet. 2002;360:1921-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Monitoring HBV Treatment Response

Cai J, Osikowicz M, Sebastiani G. Clinical significance of elevated liver transaminases in HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 2019;33:1267-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Lok AS, McMahon BJ. Chronic hepatitis B: update 2009. Hepatology. 2009;50:661-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Melia MT, Bräu N, Poordad F, et al. Infections during peginterferon/ribavirin therapy are associated with the magnitude of decline in absolute lymphocyte count: results of the IDEAL study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:960-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Savès M, Vandentorren S, Daucourt V, et al. Severe hepatic cytolysis: incidence and risk factors in patients treated by antiretroviral combinations. Aquitaine Cohort, France, 1996-1998. Groupe dEpidémiologie Clinique de Sida en Aquitaine (GECSA). AIDS. 1999;13:F115-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Scott LJ, Chan HLY. Tenofovir Alafenamide: A Review in Chronic Hepatitis B. Drugs. 2017;77:1017-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Serrano-Villar S, Quereda C, Moreno A, et al. Neutropenia during therapy with peginterferon and ribavirin in HIV-infected subjects with chronic hepatitis C and the risk of infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:458-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Mehta SH, Chaisson RE, Thomas DL, Moore RD. Hepatotoxicity associated with protease inhibitor-based antiretroviral regimens with or without concurrent ritonavir. AIDS. 2004;18:2277-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Management of HIV or HBV Virologic Failure

Audsley J, Bent SJ, Littlejohn M, et al. Effects of long-term tenofovir-based combination antiretroviral therapy in HIV-hepatitis B virus coinfection on persistent hepatitis B virus viremia and the role of hepatitis B virus quasispecies diversity. AIDS. 2016;30:1597-606.

PubMed Abstract»

Boyd A, Gozlan J, Maylin S, et al. Persistent viremia in human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis B coinfected patients undergoing long-term tenofovir: virological and clinical implications. Hepatology. 2014;60:497-507.

PubMed Abstract»

Childs K, Joshi D, Byrne R, et al. Tenofovir-based combination therapy for HIV/HBV co-infection: factors associated with a partial HBV virological response in patients with undetectable HIV viraemia. AIDS. 2013;27:1443-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Cooley L, Ayres A, Bartholomeusz A, et al. Prevalence and characterization of lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B virus mutations in HIV-HBV co-infected individuals. AIDS. 2003;17:1649-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim HN, Rodriguez CV, Van Rompaey S, et al. Factors associated with delayed hepatitis B viral suppression on tenofovir among patients coinfected with HBV-HIV in the CNICS cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;66:96-101.

PubMed Abstract»

Kitrinos KM, Corsa A, Liu Y, et al. No detectable resistance to tenofovir disoproxil fumarate after 6 years of therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2014;59:434-42.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections: hepatitis B (HBV)/HIV coinfection. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Zoutendijk R, Reijnders JG, Brown A, et al. Entecavir treatment for chronic hepatitis B: adaptation is not needed for the majority of naïve patients with a partial virological response. Hepatology. 2011;54:443-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Stopping HBV Treatment and Hepatic Flares

Bellini C, Keiser O, Chave JP, et al. Liver enzyme elevation after lamivudine withdrawal in HIV-hepatitis B virus co-infected patients: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. HIV Med. 2009;10:12-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Chang ML, Liaw YF. Hepatitis B flares in chronic hepatitis B: pathogenesis, natural course, and management. J Hepatol. 2014;61:1407-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Colven R, Harrington RD, Spach DH, Cohen CJ, Hooton TM. Retroviral rebound syndrome after cessation of suppressive antiretroviral therapy in three patients with chronic HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:430-4.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018;67:1560-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

HBV-Related Immune Reconstitution Syndrome (HBV-IRIS)

Avihingsanon A, Matthews GV, Lewin SR, et al. Assessment of HBV flare in a randomized clinical trial in HIV/HBV coinfected subjects initiating HBV-active antiretroviral therapy in Thailand. AIDS Res Ther. 2012;9:6.

PubMed Abstract»

Crane M, Matthews G, Lewin SR. Hepatitis virus immune restoration disease of the liver. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2008;3:446-52.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Rowley MW, Patel A, Zhou W, Wong M, Seetharam AB. Immune Reconstitution Syndrome with Initiation of Treatment of HBV/HIV Co-infection: Activity Flare associated with E antigen Seroconversion. Ann Hepatol. 2019;18:220-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Hepatitis D Virus

Béguelin C, Vazquez M, Moradpour D, et al. Uncontrolled hepatitis delta virus infection after initial suppression on tenofovir in a HIV/HBV-coinfected patient. AIDS. 2016;30:530-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernández-Montero JV, Vispo E, Barreiro P, et al. Hepatitis delta is a major determinant of liver decompensation events and death in HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1549-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Kushner T, Serper M, Kaplan DE. Delta hepatitis within the Veterans Affairs medical system in the United States: Prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes. J Hepatol. 2015;63:586-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Noureddin M, Gish R. Hepatitis delta: epidemiology, diagnosis and management 36 years after discovery. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2014;16:365.

PubMed Abstract»

Onali S, Figorilli F, Balestrieri C, et al. Can antiretroviral therapy modify the clinical course of HDV infection in HIV-positive patients? Antivir Ther. 2015;20:671-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Sheldon J, Ramos B, Toro C, et al. Does treatment of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection reduce hepatitis delta virus (HDV) replication in HIV-HBV-HDV-coinfected patients? Antivir Ther. 2008;13:97-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Sheng WH, Hung CC, Kao JH, et al. Impact of hepatitis D virus infection on the long-term outcomes of patients with hepatitis B virus and HIV coinfection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a matched cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:988-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Preventing HBV Perinatal Transmission

Hill JB, Sheffield JS, Kim MJ, Alexander JM, Sercely B, Wendel GD. Risk of hepatitis B transmission in breast-fed infants of chronic hepatitis B carriers. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;99:1049-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Kazim SN, Wakil SM, Khan LA, Hasnain SE, Sarin SK. Vertical transmission of hepatitis B virus despite maternal lamivudine therapy. Lancet. 2002;359:1488-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee SD, Lo KJ, Tsai YT, et al. Role of caesarean section in prevention of mother-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus. Lancet. 1988;2:833-4.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Terrault NA, Bzowej NH, Chang KM, Hwang JP, Jonas MM, Murad MH. AASLD guidelines for treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology. 2016;63:261-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Surveillance for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Bruix J, Sherman M. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma: an update. Hepatology. 2011 Mar;53:1020-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen JG, Parkin DM, Chen QG, et al. Screening for liver cancer: results of a randomised controlled trial in Qidong, China. J Med Screen. 2003;10:204-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Gelu-Simeon M, Sobesky R, Haïm-Boukobza S, et al. Do the epidemiology, physiological mechanisms and characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients justify specific screening policies? AIDS. 2014;28:1379-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Heimbach JK, Kulik LM, Finn RS, et al. AASLD guidelines for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2018;67:358-380.

PubMed Abstract»

Kansagara D, Papak J, Pasha AS, et al. Screening for hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic liver disease: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161:261-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Singal AG, Llovet JM, Yarchoan M, et al. AASLD Practice Guidance on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2023;78:1922-65.

AASLD»

Soriano V, Puoti M, Peters M, et al. Care of HIV patients with chronic hepatitis B: updated recommendations from the HIV-Hepatitis B Virus International Panel. AIDS. 2008;22:1399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Terrault NA, Lok ASF, McMahon BJ, et al. Update on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of chronic hepatitis B: AASLD 2018 hepatitis B guidance. Hepatology. 2018;67:1560-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Yip TC, Chan HL, Wong VW, Tse YK, Lam KL, Wong GL. Impact of age and gender on risk of hepatocellular carcinoma after hepatitis B surface antigen seroclearance. J Hepatol. 2017;67:902-908.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 5. Hepatitis B Coinfection

Managing Persons with Coinfection and Advanced Liver Disease

HIV.gov»

Terrault NA, Carter JT, Carlson L, Roland ME, Stock PG. Outcome of patients with hepatitis B virus and human immunodeficiency virus infections referred for liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2006;12:801-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

Abdool Karim SS, Naidoo K, Grobler A, et al. Integration of antiretroviral therapy with tuberculosis treatment. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1492-501.

PubMed Abstract»

Bellini C, Keiser O, Chave JP, et al. Liver enzyme elevation after lamivudine withdrawal in HIV-hepatitis B virus co-infected patients: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. HIV Med. 2009;10:12-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Blanc FX, Sok T, Laureillard D, et al; CAMELIA (ANRS 1295–CIPRA KH001) Study Team. Earlier versus later start of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adults with tuberculosis. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1471-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Chang JJ, Mohtashemi N, Bhattacharya D. Significance and Management of Isolated Hepatitis B Core Antibody (Anti-HBc) in HIV and HCV: Strategies in the DAA Era. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2018;15:172-181.

PubMed Abstract»

Dore GJ, Soriano V, Rockstroh J, et al. Frequent hepatitis B virus rebound among HIV-hepatitis B virus-coinfected patients following antiretroviral therapy interruption. AIDS. 2010;24:857-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Guaraldi G, Zona S, Cossarizza A, et al. Randomized trial to evaluate cardiometabolic and endothelial function in patients with plasma HIV-1 RNA suppression switching to darunavir/ritonavir with or without nucleoside analogues. HIV Clin Trials. 2013;14:140-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Guaraldi G, Zona S, Cossarizza A, et al. Switching to darunavir/ritonavir monotherapy vs. triple-therapy on body fat redistribution and bone mass in HIV-infected adults: the Monarch randomized controlled trial. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:207-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Huang YS, Sun HY, Chang SY, et al. Long-term virological and serologic responses of chronic hepatitis B virus infection to tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-containing regimens in patients with HIV and hepatitis B coinfection. Hepatol Int. 2019;13:431-9.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Mücke MM, Backus LI, Mücke VT, et al. Hepatitis B virus reactivation during direct-acting antiviral therapy for hepatitis C: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;3:172-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections: Tuberculosis/HIV coinfection. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Soriano V, Sherman KE, Barreiro P. Hepatitis delta and HIV infection. AIDS. 2017;31:875-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Thio CL, Seaberg EC, Skolasky R Jr, et al. HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, and risk of liver-related mortality in the Multicenter Cohort Study (MACS). Lancet. 2002;360:1921-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Thio CL, Smeaton L, Hollabaugh K, et al. Comparison of HBV-active HAART regimens in an HIV-HBV multinational cohort: outcomes through 144 weeks. AIDS. 2015;29:1173-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Weber R, Sabin CA, Friis-Møller N, et al. Liver-related deaths in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: the D:A:D study. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1632-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Background and Epidemiology

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Unique patient populations: patients with HIV/HCV coinfection.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

Alter MJ. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S6-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Apers L, Vanden Berghe W, De Wit S, et al. Risk factors for HCV acquisition among HIV-positive MSM in Belgium. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:585-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Armstrong GL, Wasley A, Simard EP, McQuillan GM, Kuhnert WL, Alter MJ. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1999 through 2002. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:705-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Blatt LM, Mutchnick MG, Tong MJ, et al. Assessment of hepatitis C virus RNA and genotype from 6807 patients with chronic hepatitis C in the United States. J Viral Hepat. 2000;7:196-202.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradshaw D, Matthews G, Danta M. Sexually transmitted hepatitis C infection: the new epidemic in MSM? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2013;26:66-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Breskin A, Westreich D, Cole SR, et al. The Effects of Hepatitis C Infection and Treatment on All-cause Mortality Among People Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68:1152-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus among HIV-infected men who have sex with men--New York City, 2005-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:945-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Viral Hepatitis Surveillance—United States, 2015.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Viral Hepatitis Surveillance—United States, 2020.

CDC»

Crepaz N, Hart TA, Marks G. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and sexual risk behavior: a meta-analytic review. JAMA. 2004;292:224-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Crowell TA, Berry SA, Fleishman JA, et al. Impact of hepatitis coinfection on healthcare utilization among persons living with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:425-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Danta M, Rodger AJ. Transmission of HCV in HIV-positive populations. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2011;6:451-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Hofmeister MG, Rosenthal EM, Barker LK, et al. Estimating Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in the United States, 2013-2016. Hepatology. 2019;69:1020-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Holtzman D, Asher AK, Schillie S. The Changing Epidemiology of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in the United States During the Years 2010 to 2018. Am J Public Health. 2021;:e1-e7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim AY, Onofrey S, Church DR. An epidemiologic update on hepatitis C infection in persons living with or at risk of HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2013;207 Suppl 1:S1-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Lockart I, Matthews GV, Danta M. Sexually transmitted hepatitis C infection: the evolving epidemic in HIV-positive and HIV-negative MSM. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2019;32:31-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Ostrow DE, Fox KJ, Chmiel JS, et al. Attitudes towards highly active antiretroviral therapy are associated with sexual risk taking among HIV-infected and uninfected homosexual men. AIDS. 2002;16:775-80.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Peters L, Klein MB. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in HIV-infected patients. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2015;10:297-302.

PubMed Abstract»

Scott JA, Chew KW. Treatment optimization for HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2017;4:18-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Sherman KE, Rouster SD, Chung RT, Rajicic N. Hepatitis C Virus prevalence among patients infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus: a cross-sectional analysis of the US adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:831-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor LE, Holubar M, Wu K, et al. Incident hepatitis C virus infection among US HIV-infected men enrolled in clinical trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:812-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Traeger MW, Cornelisse VJ, Asselin J, et al. Association of HIV preexposure prophylaxis with incidence of sexually transmitted infections among individuals at high risk of HIV infection. JAMA. 2019;321:1380-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Urbanus AT, Van De Laar TJ, Geskus R, et al. Trends in hepatitis C virus infections among MSM attending a sexually transmitted infection clinic; 1995-2010. AIDS. 2014;28:781-90.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Helm JJ, Prins M, del Amo J, et al. The hepatitis C epidemic among HIV-positive MSM: incidence estimates from 1990 to 2007. AIDS. 2011;25:1083-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Wandeler G, Gsponer T, Bregenzer A, et al. Hepatitis C virus infections in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study: a rapidly evolving epidemic. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1408-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Witt MD, Seaberg EC, Darilay A, et al. Incident hepatitis C virus infection in men who have sex with men: a prospective cohort analysis, 1984-2011. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:77-84.

PubMed Abstract»

World Health Organization. (‎2016)‎. Global health sector strategy on viral hepatitis 2016-2021. Towards ending viral hepatitis. World Health Organization.

WHO»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Natural History of HIV-HCV Coinfection

Alter MJ. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S6-9.

PubMed Abstract»

de Lédinghen V, Barreiro P, Foucher J, et al. Liver fibrosis on account of chronic hepatitis C is more severe in HIV-positive than HIV-negative patients despite antiretroviral therapy. J Viral Hepat. 2008;15:427-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Di Martino V, Rufat P, Boyer N, et al. The influence of human immunodeficiency virus coinfection on chronic hepatitis C in injection drug users: a long-term retrospective cohort study. Hepatology. 2001;34:1193-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Fierer DS, Dieterich DT, Fiel MI, et al. Rapid progression to decompensated cirrhosis, liver transplant, and death in HIV-infected men after primary hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1038-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Fierer DS, Uriel AJ, Carriero DC, et al. Liver fibrosis during an outbreak of acute hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected men: a prospective cohort study. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:683-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Hernandez MD, Sherman KE. HIV/hepatitis C coinfection natural history and disease progression. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2011;6:478-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim AY, Onofrey S, Church DR. An epidemiologic update on hepatitis C infection in persons living with or at risk of HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2013;207 Suppl 1:S1-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Lo Re V 3rd, Kallan MJ, Tate JP, et al. Hepatic decompensation in antiretroviral-treated patients co-infected with HIV and hepatitis C virus compared with hepatitis C virus-monoinfected patients: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:369-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Lo Re V Rd, Zeldow B, Kallan MJ, et al. Risk of liver decompensation with cumulative use of mitochondrial toxic nucleoside analogues in HIV/hepatitis C virus coinfection. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2017;26:1172-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller MF, Haley C, Koziel MJ, Rowley CF. Impact of hepatitis C virus on immune restoration in HIV-infected patients who start highly active antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:713-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Núñez M, Miralles C, Berdún MA, et al. Role of weight-based ribavirin dosing and extended duration of therapy in chronic hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients: the PRESCO trial. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2007;23:972-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Núñez M. Hepatotoxicity of antiretrovirals: incidence, mechanisms and management. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S132-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections. hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfection. March 23, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Pineda JA, Romero-Gómez M, Díaz-García F, et al. HIV coinfection shortens the survival of patients with hepatitis C virus-related decompensated cirrhosis. Hepatology. 2005;41:779-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Ragni MV, Eghtesad B, Schlesinger KW, Dvorchik I, Fung JJ. Pretransplant survival is shorter in HIV-positive than HIV-negative subjects with end-stage liver disease. Liver Transpl. 2005;11:1425-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Rockstroh JK, Mocroft A, Soriano V, et al. Influence of hepatitis C virus infection on HIV-1 disease progression and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:992-1002.

PubMed Abstract»

Rockstroh JK. Influence of viral hepatitis on HIV infection. J Hepatol. 2005;44:S25-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Rockstroh JK. Influence of viral hepatitis on HIV infection. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S25-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Sherman KE, Rockstroh J, Thomas D. Human immunodeficiency virus and liver disease: An update. Hepatology. 2015;62:1871-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith CJ, Ryom L, Weber R, et al. Trends in underlying causes of death in people with HIV from 1999 to 2011 (D:A:D): a multicohort collaboration. Lancet. 2014;384:241-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Soriano V, Mocroft A, Rockstroh J, et al. Spontaneous viral clearance, viral load, and genotype distribution of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in HIV-infected patients with anti-HCV antibodies in Europe. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:1337-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Mehta SH, Chaisson RE, Thomas DL, Moore RD. Hepatotoxicity associated with protease inhibitor-based antiretroviral regimens with or without concurrent ritonavir. AIDS. 2004;18:2277-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Moore RD, Mehta SH, Chaisson RE, Thomas DL. Hepatitis C and progression of HIV disease. JAMA. 2002;288:199-206.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Naggie S, Lalezari J, et al. Sofosbuvir and ribavirin for hepatitis C in patients with HIV coinfection. JAMA. 2014;312:353-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Sullivan PS, Hanson DL, Teshale EH, Wotring LL, Brooks JT. Effect of hepatitis C infection on progression of HIV disease and early response to initial antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2006;20:1171-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Thein HH, Yi Q, Dore GJ, Krahn MD. Natural history of hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected individuals and the impact of HIV in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. AIDS. 2008;22:1979-91.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Helm J, Geskus R, Sabin C, et al. Effect of HCV infection on cause-specific mortality after HIV seroconversion, before and after 1997. Gastroenterology. 2013;144:751-760.e2.

PubMed Abstract»

Weber R, Ruppik M, Rickenbach M, et al. Decreasing mortality and changing patterns of causes of death in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. HIV Med. 2013;14:195-207.

PubMed Abstract»

Weber R, Sabin CA, Friis-Møller N, et al. Liver-related deaths in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: the D:A:D study. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1632-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Screening for HCV Infection

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. HCV testing and linkage to care.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Monitoring Patients Who Are Starting HCV Treatment, Are on Treatment, or Have Completed Therapy

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

Lambers FA, Prins M, Thomas X, et al. Alarming incidence of hepatitis C virus re-infection after treatment of sexually acquired acute hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected MSM. AIDS. 2011;25:F21-7.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

HCV Diagnostic Testing

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. HCV testing and linkage to care.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Testing for HCV infection: an update of guidance for clinicians and laboratorians. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:362-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Chamie G, Bonacini M, Bangsberg DR, et al. Factors associated with seronegative chronic hepatitis C virus infection in HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:577-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Glynn SA, Wright DJ, Kleinman SH, et al. Dynamics of viremia in early hepatitis C virus infection. Transfusion. 2005;45:994-1002.

PubMed Abstract»

Kamili S, Drobeniuc J, Araujo AC, Hayden TM. Laboratory diagnostics for hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55 Suppl 1:S43-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee SR, Kardos KW, Schiff E, et al. Evaluation of a new, rapid test for detecting HCV infection, suitable for use with blood or oral fluid. J Virol Methods. 2011;172:27-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Majid AM, Gretch DR. Current and future hepatitis C virus diagnostic testing: problems and advancements. Microbes Infect. 2002;4:1227-36.

PubMed Abstract»

McGovern BH, Birch CE, Bowen MJ, et al. Improving the diagnosis of acute hepatitis C virus infection with expanded viral load criteria. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1051-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections. hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfection. March 23, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Richter SS. Laboratory assays for diagnosis and management of hepatitis C virus infection. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:4407-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Evaluation of Persons Diagnosed with HCV Coinfection

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. HCV testing and linkage to care.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. When and in whom to initiate HCV therapy.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

Athyros VG, Tziomalos K, Gossios TD, et al. Safety and efficacy of long-term statin treatment for cardiovascular events in patients with coronary heart disease and abnormal liver tests in the Greek Atorvastatin and Coronary Heart Disease Evaluation (GREACE) Study: a post-hoc analysis. Lancet. 2010;376:1916-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Bersoff-Matcha SJ, Cao K, Jason M, et al. Hepatitis B Virus Reactivation Associated With Direct-Acting Antiviral Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis C Virus: A Review of Cases Reported to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System. Ann Intern Med. 2017;166:792-798.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhattacharya R, Shuhart MC. Hepatitis C and alcohol: interactions, outcomes, and implications. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2003;36:242-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Castillo I, Rodríguez-Iñigo E, López-Alcorocho JM, Bartolomé J, Pardo M, Carreño V. Comparative study on the clinical and virological characteristics among patients with single occult hepatitis B virus (HBV), single occult hepatitis C virus (HCV) and occult HBV and HCV dual infection. J Med Virol. 2007;79:236-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Garcia-Tsao G, Sanyal AJ, Grace ND, Carey WD. Prevention and management of gastroesophageal varices and variceal hemorrhage in cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:2086-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Ge D, Fellay J, Thompson AJ, et al. Genetic variation in IL28B predicts hepatitis C treatment-induced viral clearance. Nature. 2009;461:399-401.

PubMed Abstract»

Gorgos L. Sexual transmission of viral hepatitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2013;27:811-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Hagan H, Pouget ER, Des Jarlais DC. A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions to prevent hepatitis C virus infection in people who inject drugs. J Infect Dis. 2011;204:74-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Hourigan LF, Macdonald GA, Purdie D, et al. Fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C correlates significantly with body mass index and steatosis. Hepatology. 1999;29:1215-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hu SX, Kyulo NL, Xia VW, Hillebrand DJ, Hu KQ. Factors associated with hepatic fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a retrospective study of a large cohort of U.S. patients. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2009;43:758-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Labarga P, Soriano V, Caruz A, et al. Association between IL28B gene polymorphisms and plasma HCV-RNA levels in HIV/HCV-co-infected patients. AIDS. 2011;25:761-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Lewis JH, Mortensen ME, Zweig S, Fusco MJ, Medoff JR, Belder R. Efficacy and safety of high-dose pravastatin in hypercholesterolemic patients with well-compensated chronic liver disease: Results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Hepatology. 2007;46:1453-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Macías J, Berenguer J, Japón MA, et al. Hepatic steatosis and steatohepatitis in human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis C virus-coinfected patients. Hepatology. 2012;56:1261-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Ortiz V, Berenguer M, Rayón JM, Carrasco D, Berenguer J. Contribution of obesity to hepatitis C-related fibrosis progression. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97:2408-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections. hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfection. March 23, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Poynard T, Bedossa P, Opolon P. Natural history of liver fibrosis progression in patients with chronic hepatitis C. The OBSVIRC, METAVIR, CLINIVIR, and DOSVIRC groups. Lancet. 1997;349:825-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Recommendations for prevention and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1998 Oct 16;47:1-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Safdar K, Schiff ER. Alcohol and hepatitis C. Semin Liver Dis. 2004;24:305-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Selph SS, Ginsburg AD, Chou R. Impact of contacting study authors to obtain additional data for systematic reviews: diagnostic accuracy studies for hepatic fibrosis. Syst Rev. 2014;3:107.

PubMed Abstract»

Sherman KE, Rockstroh J, Thomas D. Human immunodeficiency virus and liver disease: An update. Hepatology. 2015;62:1871-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Sterling RK, Lissen E, Clumeck N, et al. Development of a simple noninvasive index to predict significant fibrosis in patients with HIV/HCV coinfection. Hepatology. 2006;43:1317-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Vento S, Garofano T, Renzini C, et al. Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:286-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Wiley TE, McCarthy M, Breidi L, McCarthy M, Layden TJ. Impact of alcohol on the histological and clinical progression of hepatitis C infection. Hepatology. 1998;28:805-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Zarski JP, Bohn B, Bastie A, et al. Characteristics of patients with dual infection by hepatitis B and C viruses. J Hepatol. 1998;28:27-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Treatment of HIV in Persons with HCV Coinfection

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections. hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfection. March 23, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Table 13. Concomitant Use of Selected Antiretroviral Drugs and Hepatitis C Virus Direct-Acting Antiviral Drugs for Treatment of Hepatitis C Virus in Adults with HIV December 18, 2019.

AIDSinfo»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Treatment of HCV in Persons with HIV Coinfection

AASLD-IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Simplified HCV Treatment for Treatment-Naive Adults With Compensated Cirrhosis.

AASLD/IDSA HCV Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Initial treatment of HCV infection.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Retreatment of persons in whom prior therapy has failed.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. HCV testing and linkage to care.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Monitoring Patients Who Are Starting HCV Treatment, Are on Treatment, or Have Completed Therapy

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Simplified HCV Treatment for Treatment-Naive Adults Without Cirrhosis.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Unique patient populations: patients with HIV/HCV coinfection.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. When and in whom to initiate HCV therapy.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

Bhattacharya D, Aronsohn A, Price J, Lo Re V. Hepatitis C Guidance 2023 Update: AASLD-IDSA Recommendations for Testing, Managing, and Treating Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 May 25;ciad319.

PubMed Abstract»

Bhattacharya D, Belperio PS, Shahoumian TA, et al. Effectiveness of All-Oral Antiviral Regimens in 996 Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 1-Coinfected Patients Treated in Routine Practice. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:1711-1720.

PubMed Abstract»

Bichoupan K, Dieterich DT, Martel-Laferrière V. HIV-hepatitis C virus co-infection in the era of direct-acting antivirals. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2014;11:241-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Bourlière M, Gordon SC, Flamm SL, et al. Sofosbuvir, Velpatasvir, and Voxilaprevir for Previously Treated HCV Infection. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:2134-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown RS Jr, Buti M, Rodrigues L, et al. Glecaprevir/pibrentasvir for 8 weeks in treatment-naïve patients with chronic HCV genotypes 1-6 and compensated cirrhosis: The EXPEDITION-8 trial. J Hepatol. 2020;72:441-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cornberg M, Ahumada A, Aghemo A, et al. Safety and Effectiveness Using 8 Weeks of Glecaprevir/Pibrentasvir in HCV-Infected Treatment-Naïve Patients with Compensated Cirrhosis: The CREST Study. Adv Ther. 2022;39:3146-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Dieterich D, Rockstroh JK, Orkin C, et al. Simeprevir (TMC435) with pegylated interferon/ribavirin in patients coinfected with HCV genotype 1 and HIV-1: a phase 3 study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1579-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Harrington PR, Deming DJ, Komatsu TE, Naeger LK. Hepatitis C Virus RNA Levels During Interferon-Free Combination Direct-Acting Antiviral Treatment in Registrational Trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:666-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Manns MP, Pockros PJ, Norkrans G, et al. Long-term clearance of hepatitis C virus following interferon α-2b or peginterferon α-2b, alone or in combination with ribavirin. J Viral Hepat. 2013;20:524-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Miro JM, Stock P, Teicher E, Duclos-Vallée JC, Terrault N, Rimola A. Outcome and management of HCV/HIV coinfection pre- and post-liver transplantation. A 2015 update. J Hepatol. 2014;62:701-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Orkin C, Iser DM, et al. Sofosbuvir plus ribavirin for treatment of hepatitis C virus in patients co-infected with HIV (PHOTON-2): a multicentre, open-label, non-randomised, phase 3 study. Lancet. 2015;385:1098-106.

PubMed Abstract»

Morgan RL, Baack B, Smith BD, Yartel A, Pitasi M, Falck-Ytter Y. Eradication of hepatitis C virus infection and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:329-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Morisco F, Granata R, Stroffolini T, et al. Sustained virological response: a milestone in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. World J Gastroenterol. 2013;19:2793-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Naggie S, Cooper C, Saag M, et al. Ledipasvir and sofosbuvir for HCV in patients coinfected with HIV-1. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:705-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections. hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfection. March 23, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Table 13. Concomitant Use of Selected Antiretroviral Drugs and Hepatitis C Virus Direct-Acting Antiviral Drugs for Treatment of Hepatitis C Virus in Adults with HIV December 18, 2019.

AIDSinfo»

HIV.gov»

Rockstroh JK, Lacombe K, Viani RM, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Glecaprevir/Pibrentasvir in Patients Coinfected With Hepatitis C Virus and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1: The EXPEDITION-2 Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:1010-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Rockstroh JK, Nelson M, Katlama C, et al. Efficacy and safety of grazoprevir (MK-5172) and elbasvir (MK-8742) in patients with hepatitis C virus and HIV co-infection (C-EDGE CO-INFECTION): a non-randomised, open-label trial. Lancet HIV. 2015;2:e319-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodriguez-Torres M, Gaggar A, Shen G, et al. Sofosbuvir for chronic hepatitis C virus infection genotype 1-4 in patients coinfected with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:543-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Scott JA, Chew KW. Treatment optimization for HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2017;4:18-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Simmons B, Saleem J, Heath K, Cooke GS, Hill A. Long-Term Treatment Outcomes of Patients Infected With Hepatitis C Virus: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Survival Benefit of Achieving a Sustained Virological Response. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:730-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Simmons B, Saleem J, Hill A, Riley RD, Cooke GS. Risk of Late Relapse or Reinfection With Hepatitis C Virus After Achieving a Sustained Virological Response: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:683-694.

PubMed Abstract»

Skoglund C, Lagging M, Castedal M. No need to discontinue hepatitis C virus therapy at the time of liver transplantation. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0211437.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Eron JJ, Wyles D, et al. Ombitasvir, paritaprevir co-dosed with ritonavir, dasabuvir, and ribavirin for hepatitis C in patients co-infected with HIV-1: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2015;313:1223-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Naggie S, Lalezari J, et al. Sofosbuvir and ribavirin for hepatitis C in patients with HIV coinfection. JAMA. 2014;312:353-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Swain MG, Lai MY, Shiffman ML, et al. A sustained virologic response is durable in patients with chronic hepatitis C treated with peginterferon alfa-2a and ribavirin. Gastroenterology. 2010;139:1593-601.

PubMed Abstract»

Wiktor SZ, Scott JD. What is the impact of treatment for hepatitis C virus infection? Lancet. 2017;390:107-109.

PubMed Abstract»

Woolley AE, Singh SK, Goldberg HJ, et al. Heart and Lung Transplants from HCV-Infected Donors to Uninfected Recipients. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:1606-1617.

PubMed Abstract»

Wyles D, Bräu N, Kottilil S, et al. Sofosbuvir and Velpatasvir for the Treatment of Hepatitis C Virus in Patients Coinfected With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1: An Open-Label, Phase 3 Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:6-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Wyles DL, Ruane PJ, Sulkowski MS, et al. Daclatasvir plus sofosbuvir for HCV in patients coinfected with HIV-1. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:714-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Monitoring and Management of Chronic Liver Disease

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. HCV testing and linkage to care.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Monitoring Patients Who Are Starting HCV Treatment, Are on Treatment, or Have Completed Therapy

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Unique patient populations: patients with HIV/HCV coinfection.

AASLD/IDSA Hepatitis C Guidance»

Bräu N, Fox RK, Xiao P, et al. Presentation and outcome of hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients: a U.S.-Canadian multicenter study. J Hepatol. 2007;47:527-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Bruix J, Sherman M. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma: an update. Hepatology. 2011 Mar;53:1020-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Giordano TP, Kramer JR, Souchek J, Richardson P, El-Serag HB. Cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected veterans with and without the hepatitis C virus: a cohort study, 1992-2001. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:2349-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Heimbach JK, Kulik LM, Finn RS, et al. AASLD guidelines for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2018;67:358-380.

PubMed Abstract»

Hourigan LF, Macdonald GA, Purdie D, et al. Fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C correlates significantly with body mass index and steatosis. Hepatology. 1999;29:1215-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Kramer JR, Kowalkowski MA, Duan Z, Chiao EY. The effect of HIV viral control on the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in veterans with hepatitis C and HIV coinfection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:456-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Ortiz V, Berenguer M, Rayón JM, Carrasco D, Berenguer J. Contribution of obesity to hepatitis C-related fibrosis progression. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97:2408-14.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Puoti M, Bruno R, Soriano V, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients: epidemiological features, clinical presentation and outcome. AIDS. 2004;18:2285-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, et al. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. J Hepatol. 2023;79:1542-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Singal AG, Llovet JM, Yarchoan M, et al. AASLD Practice Guidance on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2023;78:1922-65.

AASLD»

Younossi Z, Anstee QM, Marietti M, et al. Global burden of NAFLD and NASH: trends, predictions, risk factors and prevention. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2018;15:11-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 4 » Lesson 6. Hepatitis C Coinfection

Special Considerations During Pregnancy

AASLD/IDSA. HCV Guidance: Recommendations for testing, management, and treating hepatitis C. Unique patient populations: HCV in pregnancy.

AASLD/IDSA Guidance»

Alter MJ. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S6-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Bortolotti F, Verucchi G, Cammà C, et al. Long-term course of chronic hepatitis C in children: from viral clearance to end-stage liver disease. Gastroenterology. 2008;134:1900-7.

PubMed Abstract»

European Paediatric Hepatitis C Virus Network. A significant sex--but not elective cesarean section--effect on mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:1872-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hershow RC, Riester KA, Lew J, et al. Increased vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus from hepatitis C virus-coinfected mothers. Women and Infants Transmission Study. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:414-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Indolfi G, Resti M. Perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. J Med Virol. 2009;81:836-43.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Special Populations—Hepatitis C Virus/HIV Coinfection. December 29, 2020.

HIV.gov»

Polis CB, Shah SN, Johnson KE, Gupta A. Impact of maternal HIV coinfection on the vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1123-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Alter MJ. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S6-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Bosh KA, Coyle JR, Hansen V, et al. HIV and viral hepatitis coinfection analysis using surveillance data from 15 US states and two cities. Epidemiol Infect. 2018;146:920-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Bräu N, Fox RK, Xiao P, et al. Presentation and outcome of hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients: a U.S.-Canadian multicenter study. J Hepatol. 2007;47:527-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Bruix J, Sherman M. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma: an update. Hepatology. 2011 Mar;53:1020-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Carosi G, Lazzarin , Stellbrink H, et al. Study of once-daily versus twice-daily fosamprenavir plus ritonavir administered with abacavir/lamivudine once daily in antiretroviral-naïve HIV-1-infected adult subjects. HIV Clin Trials. 2009;10:356-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Chamie G, Bonacini M, Bangsberg DR, et al. Factors associated with seronegative chronic hepatitis C virus infection in HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:577-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Cunningham EB, Hajarizadeh B, Amin J, et al. Adherence to Once-daily and Twice-daily Direct-acting Antiviral Therapy for Hepatitis C Infection Among People With Recent Injection Drug Use or Current Opioid Agonist Therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:e115-e124.

PubMed Abstract»

Dore GJ, Feld JJ, Thompson A, et al. Simplified monitoring for hepatitis C virus treatment with glecaprevir plus pibrentasvir, a randomised non-inferiority trial. J Hepatol. 2020;72:431-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Garcia-Tsao G, Sanyal AJ, Grace ND, Carey WD. Prevention and management of gastroesophageal varices and variceal hemorrhage in cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:2086-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Heimbach JK, Kulik LM, Finn RS, et al. AASLD guidelines for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2018;67:358-380.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections. hepatitis C virus/HIV coinfection. March 23, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Singal AG, Llovet JM, Yarchoan M, et al. AASLD Practice Guidance on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2023;78:1922-65.

AASLD»

Solomon SS, Wagner-Cardoso S, Smeaton L, et al. A minimal monitoring approach for the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection (ACTG A5360 [MINMON]): a phase 4, open-label, single-arm trial. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2022;7:307-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Sulkowski MS, Mehta SH, Chaisson RE, Thomas DL, Moore RD. Hepatotoxicity associated with protease inhibitor-based antiretroviral regimens with or without concurrent ritonavir. AIDS. 2004;18:2277-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Weber R, Sabin CA, Friis-Møller N, et al. Liver-related deaths in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus: the D:A:D study. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1632-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5. Prevention of HIV

Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

Module 5 » Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

Overview

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Achievements in public health. Reduction in perinatal transmission of HIV infection--United States, 1985-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55:592-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015; vol. 27:1-114. Published November 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Report, 2017; vol. 29:1-129. Published November 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 33:1-143. Published May 2022.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson L, et al. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1 pregnant women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:484-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Kourtis AP, Bulterys M, Nesheim SR, Lee FK. Understanding the timing of HIV transmission from mother to infant. JAMA. 2001;285:709-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Mandelbrot L, Mayaux MJ, Bongain A, et al. Obstetric factors and mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: the French perinatal cohorts. SEROGEST French Pediatric HIV Infection Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175(3 Pt 1):661-7.

PubMed Abstract»

McGowan JP, Shah SS. Prevention of perinatal HIV transmission during pregnancy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;46:657-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim S, Taylor A, Lampe MA, et al. A framework for elimination of perinatal transmission of HIV in the United States. Pediatrics. 2012;130:738-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim SR, FitzHarris LF, Lampe MA, Gray KM. Reconsidering the Number of Women With HIV Infection Who Give Birth Annually in the United States. Public Health Rep. 2018;133:637-643.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Siegfried N, van der Merwe L, Brocklehurst P, Sint TT. Antiretrovirals for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;:CD003510.

PubMed Abstract»

Townsend CL, Cortina-Borja M, Peckham CS, de Ruiter A, Lyall H, Tookey PA. Low rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV following effective pregnancy interventions in the United Kingdom and Ireland, 2000-2006. AIDS. 2008;22:973-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Wade NA, Birkhead GS, Warren BL, et al. Abbreviated regimens of zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1409-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Warszawski J, Tubiana R, Le Chenadec J, et al. Mother-to-child HIV transmission despite antiretroviral therapy in the ANRS French Perinatal Cohort. AIDS. 2008;22:289-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Whitmore SK, Taylor AW, Espinoza L, Shouse RL, Lampe MA, Nesheim S. Correlates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in the United States and Puerto Rico. Pediatrics. 2012;129:e74-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

HIV Testing During Pregnancy

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for HIV: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159:51-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Maternal HIV testing and identification of perinatal HIV exposure January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Module 5 » Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

Antepartum Management

Best B, Caparelli E, Stek A, et al. Elvitegravir/Cobicistat Pharmacokinetics in Pregnancy and Postpartum. Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections 2017; Seattle, WA. Abstract 755.

CROI 2017»

Cecchini DM, Martinez MG, Morganti LM, Rodriguez CG. Antiretroviral Therapy Containing Raltegravir to Prevent Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV in Infected Pregnant Women. Infect Dis Rep. 2017;9:7017.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Calmy A, Mofenson L. Safety of efavirenz in the first trimester of pregnancy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2011; 25: 2301-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Ioannidis JP, Abrams EJ, Ammann A, et al. Perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by pregnant women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/mL. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:539-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Kourtis AP, Bulterys M, Nesheim SR, Lee FK. Understanding the timing of HIV transmission from mother to infant. JAMA. 2001;285:709-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Lockman S, Brummel SS, Ziemba L, et al. Efficacy and safety of dolutegravir with emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide fumarate or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, and efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate HIV antiretroviral therapy regimens started in pregnancy (IMPAACT 2010/VESTED): a multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2021;397:1276-92.

PubMed Abstract»

McGowan JP, Shah SS. Prevention of perinatal HIV transmission during pregnancy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;46:657-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Mirochnick M, Best BM, Stek AM, et al. Lopinavir exposure with an increased dose during pregnancy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49:485-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Antiretroviral therapy for people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Appendix B: Supplement: safety and toxicity of individual antiretroviral agents in pregnancy. Table 14. Antiretroviral drug use in pregnant people with HIV: pharmacokinetic and toxicity data in human pregnancy and recommendations for use in pregnancy. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 6. What to start: initial antiretroviral regimens during pregnancy for people who are antiretroviral-naive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 7. Situation-specific recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant people and nonpregnant people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: people with HIV who are taking antiretroviral therapy when they become pregnant. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Appendix C: Antiretroviral counseling guide for health care providers. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: antiretroviral drug regimens and maternal and neonatal outcomes. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for us of antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy: pregnant people who have not achieved virologic suppression on antiretroviral therapy. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have previously received antiretroviral medications but are not currently on antiretroviral medications. Janaruy 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Pinnetti C, Baroncelli S, Villani P, et al. Rapid HIV-RNA decline following addition of raltegravir and tenofovir to ongoing highly active antiretroviral therapy in a woman presenting with high-level HIV viraemia at week 38 of pregnancy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010;65:2050-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Rahangdale L, Cates J, Potter J, et al. Integrase inhibitors in late pregnancy and rapid HIV viral load reduction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;214:385.e1-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Stek A, Best BM, Wang J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of Once Versus Twice Daily Darunavir in Pregnant HIV-Infected Women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:33-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Tubiana R, Le Chenadec J, Rouzioux C, et al. Factors associated with mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 despite a maternal viral load <500 copies/ml at delivery: a case-control study nested in the French perinatal cohort (EPF-ANRS CO1). Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:585-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Warszawski J, Tubiana R, Le Chenadec J, et al. Mother-to-child HIV transmission despite antiretroviral therapy in the ANRS French Perinatal Cohort. AIDS. 2008;22:289-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Westling K, Pettersson K, Kaldma A, Navér L. Rapid decline in HIV viral load when introducing raltegravir-containing antiretroviral treatment late in pregnancy. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012;26:714-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes LB, Diseko M, et al. Update on neural tube defects with antiretroviral exposure in the Tsepamo study, Botswana. Abstract PEBLB14. Presented at: IAS; 2021. Virtual Conference

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Makhema J, Shapiro RL. Neural-Tube Defects with Dolutegravir Treatment from the Time of Conception. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:979-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

Intrapartum Management

Briand N, Warszawski J, Mandelbrot L, et al. Is intrapartum intravenous zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission still useful in the combination antiretroviral therapy era? Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:903-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Cotter AM, Brookfield KF, Duthely LM, Gonzalez Quintero VH, Potter JE, O'Sullivan MJ. Duration of membrane rupture and risk of perinatal transmission of HIV-1 in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;207:482.e1-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Dorenbaum A, Cunningham CK, Gelber RD, et al. Two-dose intrapartum/newborn nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal HIV transmission: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;288:189-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Eppes C. Is it time to leave the avoidance of rupture of membranes for women infected with HIV and receiving cART in the past? BJOG. 2016 May;123:982.

PubMed Abstract»

European Mode of Delivery Collaboration.. Elective caesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 1999;353:1035-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Appendix B: Supplement: safety and toxicity of individual antiretroviral agents in pregnancy. Table 14. Antiretroviral drug use in pregnant people with HIV: pharmacokinetic and toxicity data in human pregnancy and recommendations for use in pregnancy. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: antiretroviral drug regimens and maternal and neonatal outcomes. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Intrapartum care: other intrapartum management considerations. December 24, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Intrapartum care: transmission and mode of delivery. December 29, 2020.

HIV.gov»

Peters H, Byrne L, De Ruiter A, et al. Duration of ruptured membranes and mother-to-child HIV transmission: a prospective population-based surveillance study. BJOG. 2016;123:975-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Shapiro RL, Thior I, Gilbert PB, et al. Maternal single-dose nevirapine versus placebo as part of an antiretroviral strategy to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission in Botswana. AIDS. 2006;20:1281-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Wade NA, Birkhead GS, Warren BL, et al. Abbreviated regimens of zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1409-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

Acute HIV in Pregnancy and in the Postpartum Period

Birkhead GS, Pulver WP, Warren BL, Hackel S, Rodríguez D, Smith L. Acquiring human immunodeficiency virus during pregnancy and mother-to-child transmission in New York: 2002-2006. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;115:1247-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Drake AL, Wagner A, Richardson B, John-Stewart G. Incident HIV during pregnancy and postpartum and risk of mother-to-child HIV transmission: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2014;11:e1001608.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Thomson KA, Hughes J, Baeten JM, et al. Increased Risk of HIV Acquisition Among Women Throughout Pregnancy and During the Postpartum Period: A Prospective Per-Coital-Act Analysis Among Women With HIV-Infected Partners. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:16-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

Management of the Infant Exposed to HIV

Behrens GMN, Aebi-Popp K, Babiker A. Close to Zero, but Not Zero: What Is an Acceptable HIV Transmission Risk Through Breastfeeding? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2022;89:e42.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Committee of Pediatric AIDS. Infant feeding and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Pediatrics. 2013;131:391-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Floridia M, Mastroiacovo P, Tamburrini E, et al. Birth defects in a national cohort of pregnant women with HIV infection in Italy, 2001-2011. BJOG. 2013;120:1466-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Flynn PM, Taha TE, Cababasay M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission Through Breastfeeding: Efficacy and Safety of Maternal Antiretroviral Therapy Versus Infant Nevirapine Prophylaxis for Duration of Breastfeeding in HIV-1-Infected Women With High CD4 Cell Count (IMPAACT PROMISE): A Randomized, Open-Label, Clinical Trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;77:383-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Fogel J, Li Q, Taha TE, et al. Initiation of antiretroviral treatment in women after delivery can induce multiclass drug resistance in breastfeeding HIV-infected infants. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:1069-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Humphrey JH, Marinda E, Mutasa K, et al. Mother to child transmission of HIV among Zimbabwean women who seroconverted postnatally: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2010;341:c6580.

PubMed Abstract»

Knapp KM, Brogly SB, Muenz DG, et al. Prevalence of congenital anomalies in infants with in utero exposure to antiretrovirals. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:164-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Le Doaré K, Bland R, Newell ML. Neurodevelopment in children born to HIV-infected mothers by infection and treatment status. Pediatrics. 2012;130:e1326-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Nielsen-Saines K, Watts DH, Veloso VG, et al. Three postpartum antiretroviral regimens to prevent intrapartum HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2368-79.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Appendix B: Supplement: safety and toxicity of individual antiretroviral agents in pregnancy. Table 14. Antiretroviral drug use in pregnant people with HIV: pharmacokinetic and toxicity data in human pregnancy and recommendations for use in pregnancy. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to people with HIV infection: long-term follow-up of infants exposed to antiretroviral drugs. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to people with HIV: antiretroviral management of newborns with perinatal HIV exposure or HIV infection. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to people with HIV: initial postnatal management of the neonate exposed to HIV. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: teratogenicity. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Watts DH, Huang S, Culnane M, et al. Birth defects among a cohort of infants born to HIV-infected women on antiretroviral medication. J Perinat Med. 2011;39:163-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 1. Preventing Perinatal HIV Transmission

Postpartum Follow-Up for People with HIV

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Committee of Pediatric AIDS. Infant feeding and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Pediatrics. 2013;131:391-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Humphrey JH, Marinda E, Mutasa K, et al. Mother to child transmission of HIV among Zimbabwean women who seroconverted postnatally: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2010;341:c6580.

PubMed Abstract»

Mellins CA, Chu C, Malee K, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral treatment among pregnant and postpartum HIV-infected women. AIDS Care. 2008;20:958-68.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to people with HIV: antiretroviral management of newborns with perinatal HIV exposure or HIV infection. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to people with HIV: initial postnatal management of the neonate exposed to HIV. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Rubin LH, Cook JA, Grey DD, et al. Perinatal depressive symptoms in HIV-infected versus HIV-uninfected women: a prospective study from preconception to postpartum. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2011;20:1287-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Shapiro RL, Hughes MD, Ogwu A, et al. Antiretroviral regimens in pregnancy and breast-feeding in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:2282-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

PubMed Abstract»

Blonk MI, Colbers AP, Hidalgo-Tenorio C, et al. Raltegravir in HIV-1-Infected Pregnant Women: Pharmacokinetics, Safety, and Efficacy. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:809-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Duryea E, Nicholson F, Cooper S, et al. The Use of Protease Inhibitors in Pregnancy: Maternal and Fetal Considerations. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2015;2015:563727.

PubMed Abstract»

Fortuny C, Duiculescu D, Cheng K, et al. Pharmacokinetics and 48-week safety and antiviral activity of fosamprenavir-containing regimens in HIV-infected 2- to 18-year-old children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2014;33:50-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Khan S, Tsang KK, Brophy J, et al. Canadian Pediatric & Perinatal HIV/AIDS Research Group consensus recommendations for infant feeding in the HIV context. J Assoc Med Microbiol Infect Dis Can. 2023;8:7-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Kreitchmann R, Best BM, Wang J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of an increased atazanavir dose with and without tenofovir during the third trimester of pregnancy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63:59-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Lampe MA, Nesheim SR, Oladapo KL, Ewing AC, Wiener J, Kourtis AP. Achieving Elimination of Perinatal HIV in the United States. Pediatrics. 2023;151:e2022059604.

PubMed Abstract»

Malaba TR, Nakatudde I, Kintu K, et al. 72 weeks post-partum follow-up of dolutegravir versus efavirenz initiated in late pregnancy (DolPHIN-2): an open-label, randomised controlled study. Lancet HIV. 2022;9:e534-e543.

PubMed Abstract»

Mena A, Vázquez P, Castro Á, López S, Bello L, Pedreira JD. Clinical experience of raltegravir-containing regimens in HIV-infected patients during rifampicin-containing treatment of tuberculosis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:951-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Mofenson LM, Baggaley RC, Mameletzis I. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate safety for women and their infants during pregnancy and breastfeeding. AIDS. 2017;31:213-232.

PubMed Abstract»

Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for HIV: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159:51-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim S, Taylor A, Lampe MA, et al. A framework for elimination of perinatal transmission of HIV in the United States. Pediatrics. 2012;130:738-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim SR, Wiener J, Fitz Harris LF, Lampe MA, Weidle PJ. Brief Report: Estimated Incidence of Perinatally Acquired HIV Infection in the United States, 1978-2013. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;76:461-4.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in patients with coinfections: Tuberculosis/HIV coinfection. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 6. What to start: initial antiretroviral regimens during pregnancy for people who are antiretroviral-naive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 7. Situation-specific recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant people and nonpregnant people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Maternal HIV testing and identification of perinatal HIV exposure January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: teratogenicity. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Powell AM, Knott-Grasso MA, Anderson J, et al. Infant feeding for people living with HIV in high resource settings: a multi-disciplinary approach with best practices to maximise risk reduction. Lancet Reg Health Am. 2023;22:100509.

PubMed Abstract»

Siberry GK, Jacobson DL, Kalkwarf HJ, et al. Lower Newborn Bone Mineral Content Associated With Maternal Use of Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate During Pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:996-1003.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegfried N, van der Merwe L, Brocklehurst P, Sint TT. Antiretrovirals for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;:CD003510.

PubMed Abstract»

The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 1999;353:1035-9.

PubMed Abstract»

The mode of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1--a meta-analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies. The International Perinatal HIV Group. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:977-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Tuomala RE, Shapiro DE, Mofenson LM, et al. Antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy and the risk of an adverse outcome. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1863-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Van de Perre P, Simonon A, Msellati P, et al. Postnatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant. A prospective cohort study in Kigali, Rwanda. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:593-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Wertz J, Cesario J, Sackrison J, Kim S, Dola C. Acute HIV Infection in Pregnancy: the case for third trimester rescreening. Case Rep Infect Dis. 2011;2011:340817.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Makhema J, Shapiro RL. Neural-Tube Defects with Dolutegravir Treatment from the Time of Conception. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:979-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Introduction and Background

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Song R, Tang T, et al. HIV Trends in the United States: Diagnoses and Estimated Incidence. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2017;3:e8.

PubMed Abstract»

Harris NS, Johnson AS, Huang YA, et al. Vital Signs: Status of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Testing, Viral Suppression, and HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis - United States, 2013-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:1117-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Antiretroviral therapy to prevent sexual transmission of HIV (treatment as prevention). December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

UNAIDS: Global Network of People Living with HIV. 2013. Positive Health, Dignity and Prevention. Operational Guidelines. Geneva and Amsterdam.

UNAIDS»

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Antiretroviral Treatment as Prevention

Attia S, Egger M, Müller M, Zwahlen M, Low N. Sexual transmission of HIV according to viral load and antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2009;23:1397-404.

PubMed Abstract»

Bailey RC, Moses S, Parker CB, et al. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007;369:643-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:118-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Castel AD, Befus M, Willis S, et al. Use of the community viral load as a population-based biomarker of HIV burden. AIDS. 2012;26:345-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Das M, Chu PL, Santos GM, et al. Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco. PLoS One. 2010;5:e11068.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Fisher M, Pao D, Brown AE, et al. Determinants of HIV-1 transmission in men who have sex with men: a combined clinical, epidemiological and phylogenetic approach. AIDS. 2010;24:1739-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Jin F, Jansson J, Law M, et al. Per-contact probability of HIV transmission in homosexual men in Sydney in the era of HAART. AIDS. 2010;24:907-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Laraque F, Mavronicolas HA, Robertson MM, Gortakowski HW, Terzian AS. Disparities in community viral load among HIV-infected persons in New York City. AIDS. 2013;27:2129-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Long EF, Brandeau ML, Owens DK. The cost-effectiveness and population outcomes of expanded HIV screening and antiretroviral treatment in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:778-89.

PubMed Abstract»

McNairy ML, El-Sadr WM. Antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of HIV transmission: what will it take? Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1003-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller WC, Powers KA, Smith MK, Cohen MS. Community viral load as a measure for assessment of HIV treatment as prevention. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:459-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Montaner JS, Lima VD, Barrios R, et al. Association of highly active antiretroviral therapy coverage, population viral load, and yearly new HIV diagnoses in British Columbia, Canada: a population-based study. Lancet. 2010;376:532-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Antiretroviral therapy to prevent sexual transmission of HIV (treatment as prevention). December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Powers KA, Ghani AC, Miller WC, et al. The role of acute and early HIV infection in the spread of HIV and implications for transmission prevention strategies in Lilongwe, Malawi: a modelling study. Lancet. 2011;378:256-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, et al. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:921-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Reynolds SJ, Makumbi F, Nakigozi G, et al. HIV-1 transmission among HIV-1 discordant couples before and after the introduction of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2011;25:473-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Sheth PM, Kovacs C, Kemal KS, et al. Persistent HIV RNA shedding in semen despite effective antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2009;23:2050-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Wood E, Milloy MJ, Montaner JS. HIV treatment as prevention among injection drug users. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:151-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Knowledge of HIV Status

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: HIV testing and diagnosis among adults--United States, 2001-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:1550-5.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, An Q, Tang T, et al. Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:657-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Hall HI, Holtgrave DR, Maulsby C. HIV transmission rates from persons living with HIV who are aware and unaware of their infection. AIDS. 2012;26:893-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks G, Crepaz N, Janssen RS. Estimating sexual transmission of HIV from persons aware and unaware that they are infected with the virus in the USA. AIDS. 2006;20:1447-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Noor SW, Ross MW, Lai D, Risser JM. Drug and sexual HIV risk behaviours related to knowledge of HIV serostatus among injection drug users in Houston, Texas. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:89-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Behavioral Prevention Interventions for Persons with HIV

Balán IC, Carballo-Diéguez A, Ventuneac A, Remien RH, Dolezal C, Ford J. Are HIV-negative men who have sex with men and who bareback concerned about HIV infection? Implications for HIV risk reduction interventions. Arch Sex Behav. 2013;42:279-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Berg RC. Barebacking: a review of the literature. Arch Sex Behav. 2009;38:754-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:118-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Cassels S, Katz DA. Seroadaptation among men who have sex with men: emerging research themes. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2013;10:305-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: HIV testing and diagnosis among adults--United States, 2001-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:1550-5.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Crepaz N, Lyles CM, Wolitski RJ, et al. Do prevention interventions reduce HIV risk behaviours among people living with HIV? A meta-analytic review of controlled trials. AIDS. 2006;20:143-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Crosby RA, Mena L, Geter A. Favourable attitudes towards serosorting are associated with overall less frequent condom use among young Black men having sex men. Sex Health. 2016;13:91-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Eaton LA, Kalichman SC, O'Connell DA, Karchner WD. A strategy for selecting sexual partners believed to pose little/no risks for HIV: serosorting and its implications for HIV transmission. AIDS Care. 2009;21:1279-88.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Frieden TR, Foti KE, Mermin J. Applying Public Health Principles to the HIV Epidemic--How Are We Doing? N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2281-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Galvin SR, Cohen MS. The role of sexually transmitted diseases in HIV transmission. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2004;2:33-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Giannou FK, Tsiara CG, Nikolopoulos GK, et al. Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on HIV serodiscordant couples. Expert Rev Pharmacoecon Outcomes Res. 2016;16:489-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Golden MR, Dombrowski JC, Wood RW, Fleming M, Harrington RD. A controlled study of the effectiveness of public health HIV partner notification services. AIDS. 2009;23:133-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Golden MR, Hogben M, Potterat JJ, Handsfield HH. HIV partner notification in the United States: a national survey of program coverage and outcomes. Sex Transm Dis. 2004;31:709-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, An Q, Tang T, et al. Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:657-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Hall HI, Holtgrave DR, Maulsby C. HIV transmission rates from persons living with HIV who are aware and unaware of their infection. AIDS. 2012;26:893-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Holt M, Lea T, Schmidt HM, et al. Increasing Belief in the Effectiveness of HIV Treatment as Prevention: Results of Repeated, National Surveys of Australian Gay and Bisexual Men, 2013-15. AIDS Behav. 2016;20:1564-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Hughes JP, Baeten JM, Lingappa JR, et al. Determinants of per-coital-act HIV-1 infectivity among African HIV-1-serodiscordant couples. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:358-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Kalichman SC, Williams EA, Cherry C, Belcher L, Nachimson D. Sexual coercion, domestic violence, and negotiating condom use among low-income African American women. J Womens Health. 1998;7:371-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Katz DA, Hogben M, Dooley SW Jr, Golden MR. Increasing public health partner services for human immunodeficiency virus: results of a second national survey. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37:469-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Kennedy CE, Bernard LJ, Muessig KE, et al. Serosorting and HIV/STI Infection among HIV-Negative MSM and Transgender People: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis to Inform WHO Guidelines. J Sex Transm Dis. 2013;2013:583627.

PubMed Abstract»

Khosropour CM, Dombrowski JC, Swanson F, et al. Trends in Serosorting and the Association With HIV/STI Risk Over Time Among Men Who Have Sex With Men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72:189-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Koff A, Goldberg C, Ogbuagu O. Condomless sex and HIV transmission among serodifferent couples: current evidence and recommendations. Ann Med. 2017;49:534-544.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks G, Crepaz N, Janssen RS. Estimating sexual transmission of HIV from persons aware and unaware that they are infected with the virus in the USA. AIDS. 2006;20:1447-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Mizuno Y, Zhu J, Crepaz N, et al. Receipt of HIV/STD prevention counseling by HIV-infected adults receiving medical care in the United States. AIDS. 2014;28:407-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Myers JJ, Shade SB, Rose CD, et al. Interventions delivered in clinical settings are effective in reducing risk of HIV transmission among people living with HIV: results from the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA)'s Special Projects of National Significance initiative. AIDS Behav. 2010;14:483-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Newcomb ME, Mongrella MC, Weis B, McMillen SJ, Mustanski B. Partner Disclosure of PrEP Use and Undetectable Viral Load on Geosocial Networking Apps: Frequency of Disclosure and Decisions About Condomless Sex. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;71:200-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Noor SW, Ross MW, Lai D, Risser JM. Drug and sexual HIV risk behaviours related to knowledge of HIV serostatus among injection drug users in Houston, Texas. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:89-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Parsons JT, Bimbi DS. Intentional unprotected anal intercourse among sex who have sex with men: barebacking - from behavior to identity. AIDS Behav. 2007;11:277-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Pinkerton SD, Abramson PR. Effectiveness of condoms in preventing HIV transmission. Soc Sci Med. 1997;44:1303-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Raiford JL, Diclemente RJ, Wingood GM. Effects of fear of abuse and possible STI acquisition on the sexual behavior of young African American women. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:1067-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Rose CD, Koester KA, Kang Dufour MS, et al. Messages HIV clinicians use in prevention with positives interventions. AIDS Care. 2012;24:704-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith DK, Herbst JH, Zhang X, Rose CE. Condom effectiveness for HIV prevention by consistency of use among men who have sex with men in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:337-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Stone E, Heagerty P, Vittinghoff E, et al. Correlates of condom failure in a sexually active cohort of men who have sex with men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1999;20:495-501.

PubMed Abstract»

Sullivan PS, Carballo-Diéguez A, Coates T, et al. Successes and challenges of HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. Lancet. 2012;380:388-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Truong HM, Kellogg T, Klausner JD, et al. Increases in sexually transmitted infections and sexual risk behaviour without a concurrent increase in HIV incidence among men who have sex with men in San Francisco: a suggestion of HIV serosorting? Sex Transm Infect. 2006;82:461-6.

PubMed Abstract»

van den Boom W, Konings R, Davidovich U, Sandfort T, Prins M, Stolte IG. Is serosorting effective in reducing the risk of HIV infection among men who have sex with men with casual sex partners? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65:375-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Vittinghoff E, Douglas J, Judson F, McKirnan D, MacQueen K, Buchbinder SP. Per-contact risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission between male sexual partners. Am J Epidemiol. 1999;150:306-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Weller S, Davis K. Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;:CD003255.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Clinical Prevention Guidance. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Importance of Diagnosing and Treating Acute HIV Infection

Brenner BG, Roger M, Routy JP, et al. High rates of forward transmission events after acute/early HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis. 2007;195:951-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). National HIV Testing Day and new testing recommendations. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:537.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Muessig KE, Smith MK, Powers KA, Kashuba AD. Antiviral agents and HIV prevention: controversies, conflicts, and consensus. AIDS. 2012;26:1585-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamlyn E, Jones V, Porter K, Fidler S. Antiretroviral treatment of primary HIV infection to reduce onward transmission. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2010;5:283-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Hollingsworth TD, Anderson RM, Fraser C. HIV-1 transmission, by stage of infection. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:687-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pilcher CD, Joaki G, Hoffman IF, et al. Amplified transmission of HIV-1: comparison of HIV-1 concentrations in semen and blood during acute and chronic infection. AIDS. 2007;21:1723-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith MK, Rutstein SE, Powers KA, et al. The detection and management of early HIV infection: a clinical and public health emergency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S187-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, et al. Rates of HIV-1 transmission per coital act, by stage of HIV-1 infection, in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1403-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Screening and Treatment of Sexually Transmitted Infections

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:427-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Galvin SR, Cohen MS. The role of sexually transmitted diseases in HIV transmission. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2004;2:33-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Garg S, Taylor LE, Grasso C, Mayer KH. Prevalent and incident hepatitis C virus infection among HIV-infected men who have sex with men engaged in primary care in a Boston community health center. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1480-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoover KW, Butler M, Workowski K, et al. STD screening of HIV-infected MSM in HIV clinics. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37:771-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Patton ME, Kidd S, Llata E, et al. Extragenital gonorrhea and chlamydia testing and infection among men who have sex with men--STD Surveillance Network, United States, 2010-2012. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1564-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Spindler HH, Scheer S, Chen SY, et al. Viagra, methamphetamine, and HIV risk: results from a probability sample of MSM, San Francisco. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:586-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Circumcision

Auvert B, Taljaard D, Lagarde E, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Sitta R, Puren A. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: the ANRS 1265 Trial. PLoS Med. 2005;2:e298.

PubMed Abstract»

Bailey RC, Moses S, Parker CB, et al. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2007;369:643-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Gray RH, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, et al. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007;369:657-66.

PubMed Abstract»

Millett GA, Flores SA, Marks G, Reed JB, Herbst JH. Circumcision status and risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300:1674-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Padian NS, McCoy SI, Balkus JE, Wasserheit JN. Weighing the gold in the gold standard: challenges in HIV prevention research. AIDS. 2010;24:621-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegfried N, Muller M, Deeks JJ, Volmink J. Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;:CD003362.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Howe RS. Genital ulcerative disease and sexually transmitted urethritis and circumcision: a meta-analysis. Int J STD AIDS. 2007;18:799-809.

PubMed Abstract»

Wawer MJ, Makumbi F, Kigozi G, et al. Circumcision in HIV-infected men and its effect on HIV transmission to female partners in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374:229-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Weiss HA, Thomas SL, Munabi SK, Hayes RJ. Male circumcision and risk of syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sex Transm Infect. 2006;82:101-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 2. Preventing HIV Transmission in Persons with HIV

Prevention Strategies in Persons with Substance Use

PubMed Abstract»

Aspinall EJ, Nambiar D, Goldberg DJ, et al. Are needle and syringe programmes associated with a reduction in HIV transmission among people who inject drugs: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 2014;43:235-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:427-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Integrated prevention services for HIV infection, viral hepatitis, sexually transmitted diseases, and tuberculosis for persons who use drugs illicitly: summary guidance from CDC and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2012;61:1-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Syringe exchange programs --- United States, 2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:1488-91.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Clark T, Marquez C, Hare CB, John MD, Klausner JD. Methamphetamine use, transmission risk behavior and internet use among HIV-infected patients in medical care, San Francisco, 2008. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:396-403.

PubMed Abstract»

Des Jarlais DC. Structural interventions to reduce HIV transmission among injecting drug users. AIDS. 2000;14 Suppl 1:S41-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Kalichman SC, Grebler T, Amaral CM, et al. Intentional non-adherence to medications among HIV positive alcohol drinkers: prospective study of interactive toxicity beliefs. J Gen Intern Med. 2013;28:399-405.

PubMed Abstract»

Kalichman SC, Grebler T, Amaral CM, et al. Viral suppression and antiretroviral medication adherence among alcohol using HIV-positive adults. Int J Behav Med. 2014;21:811-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Kral AH, Bluthenthal RN, Lorvick J, Gee L, Bacchetti P, Edlin BR. Sexual transmission of HIV-1 among injection drug users in San Francisco, USA: risk-factor analysis. Lancet. 2001;357:1397-401.

PubMed Abstract»

Legislative Analysis and Public Policy Association. Syringe services programs: summary of State laws. June 2022.

Legislative Analysis and Public Policy Association»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Meader N, Li R, Des Jarlais DC, Pilling S. Psychosocial interventions for reducing injection and sexual risk behaviour for preventing HIV in drug users. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;:CD007192.

PubMed Abstract»

Morin SF, Myers JJ, Shade SB, Koester K, Maiorana A, Rose CD. Predicting HIV transmission risk among HIV-infected patients seen in clinical settings. AIDS Behav. 2007;11:S6-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Samet JH, Cheng DM, Libman H, Nunes DP, Alperen JK, Saitz R. Alcohol consumption and HIV disease progression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46:194-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Semple SJ, Zians J, Grant I, Patterson TL. Sexual risk behavior of HIV-positive methamphetamine-using men who have sex with men: the role of partner serostatus and partner type. Arch Sex Behav. 2006;35:461-71.

PubMed Abstract»

United States Health and Human Services. Department of Health and Human Services Implementation Guidance to Support Certain Components of Syringe Services Programs, 2016.

CDC»

Vlahov D, Junge B. The role of needle exchange programs in HIV prevention. Public Health Rep. 1998;113 Suppl 1:75-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Weinmeyer R. Needle Exchange Programs' Status in US Politics. AMA J Ethics. 2016;18:252-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

PubMed Abstract»

Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:118-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:427-39.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory testing for the diagnosis of HIV infection: updated recommendations. June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Des Jarlais DC. Structural interventions to reduce HIV transmission among injecting drug users. AIDS. 2000;14 Suppl 1:S41-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Gathe JC Jr, Ive P, Wood R, et al. SOLO: 48-week efficacy and safety comparison of once-daily fosamprenavir /ritonavir versus twice-daily nelfinavir in naive HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS. 2004;18:1529-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Gathe JC Jr, Wood R, Sanne I, et al. Long-term (120-Week) antiviral efficacy and tolerability of fosamprenavir/ritonavir once daily in therapy-naive patients with HIV-1 infection: an uncontrolled, open-label, single-arm follow-on study. Clin Ther. 2006;28:745-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, An Q, Tang T, et al. Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection - United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:657-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Hall HI, Holtgrave DR, Maulsby C. HIV transmission rates from persons living with HIV who are aware and unaware of their infection. AIDS. 2012;26:893-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Hamlyn E, Jones V, Porter K, Fidler S. Antiretroviral treatment of primary HIV infection to reduce onward transmission. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2010;5:283-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Hollingsworth TD, Anderson RM, Fraser C. HIV-1 transmission, by stage of infection. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:687-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Kalichman SC, Grebler T, Amaral CM, et al. Viral suppression and antiretroviral medication adherence among alcohol using HIV-positive adults. Int J Behav Med. 2014;21:811-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Long EF, Brandeau ML, Owens DK. The cost-effectiveness and population outcomes of expanded HIV screening and antiretroviral treatment in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:778-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks G, Crepaz N, Janssen RS. Estimating sexual transmission of HIV from persons aware and unaware that they are infected with the virus in the USA. AIDS. 2006;20:1447-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

McNairy ML, El-Sadr WM. Antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of HIV transmission: what will it take? Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1003-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Noor SW, Ross MW, Lai D, Risser JM. Drug and sexual HIV risk behaviours related to knowledge of HIV serostatus among injection drug users in Houston, Texas. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:89-95.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Paz-Bailey G, Sternberg M, Puren AJ, Steele L, Lewis DA. Determinants of HIV type 1 shedding from genital ulcers among men in South Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1060-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Joaki G, Hoffman IF, et al. Amplified transmission of HIV-1: comparison of HIV-1 concentrations in semen and blood during acute and chronic infection. AIDS. 2007;21:1723-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, et al. Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:1785-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, et al. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:921-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith MK, Rutstein SE, Powers KA, et al. The detection and management of early HIV infection: a clinical and public health emergency. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S187-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Vlahov D, Junge B. The role of needle exchange programs in HIV prevention. Public Health Rep. 1998;113 Suppl 1:75-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, et al. Rates of HIV-1 transmission per coital act, by stage of HIV-1 infection, in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1403-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilson DP, Regan DG, Heymer KJ, Jin F, Prestage GP, Grulich AE. Serosorting may increase the risk of HIV acquisition among men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37:13-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Module 5 » Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Introduction

Baggaley RF, Boily MC, White RG, Alary M. Risk of HIV-1 transmission for parenteral exposure and blood transfusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2006;20:805-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Bell DM. Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in healthcare workers: an overview. Am J Med. 1997;102(suppl 5B):9-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Cardo DM, Culver DH, Ciesielski CA, et al. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Needlestick Surveillance Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1485-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: provisional Public Health Service recommendations for chemoprophylaxis after occupational exposure to HIV. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996;45:468-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Joyce MP, Kuhar D, Brooks JT. Notes from the field: occupationally acquired HIV infection among health care workers - United States, 1985-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;63:1245-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Moorman AC, de Perio MA, Goldschmidt R, et al. Testing and Clinical Management of Health Care Personnel Potentially Exposed to Hepatitis C Virus - CDC Guidance, United States, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Panlilio AL, Cardo DM, Grohskopf LA, Heneine W, Ross CS. Updated U.S. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Patel P, Borkowf CB, Brooks JT, Lasry A, Lansky A, Mermin J. Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review. AIDS. 2014;28:1509-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Public Health Service guidelines for the management of health-care worker exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1998;47:1-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Public Health Service statement on management of occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus, including considerations regarding zidovudine postexposure use. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1990;39:1-14.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Public Health Service. Updated U.S. Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV and Recommendations for Postexposure Prophylaxis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2001;50:1-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Rationale for Occupational HIV PEP

Bourry O, Brochard P, Souquiere S, et al. Prevention of vaginal simian immunodeficiency virus transmission in macaques by postexposure prophylaxis with zidovudine, lamivudine and indinavir. AIDS. 2009;23:447-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Dobard C, Sharma S, Parikh UM, et al. Postexposure protection of macaques from vaginal SHIV infection by topical integrase inhibitors. Sci Transl Med. 2014;6:227ra35.

PubMed Abstract»

Joyce MP, Kuhar D, Brooks JT. Notes from the field: occupationally acquired HIV infection among health care workers - United States, 1985-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;63:1245-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Otten RA, Smith DK, Adams DR, et al. Efficacy of postexposure prophylaxis after intravaginal exposure of pig-tailed macaques to a human-derived retrovirus (human immunodeficiency virus type 2). J Virol. 2000;74:9771-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Subbarao S, Otten RA, Ramos A, et al. Chemoprophylaxis with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate provided partial protection against infection with simian human immunodeficiency virus in macaques given multiple virus challenges. J Infect Dis. 2006;194:904-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Tsai CC, Emau P, Follis KE, et al. Effectiveness of postinoculation (R)-9-(2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl) adenine treatment for prevention of persistent simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmne infection depends critically on timing of initiation and duration of treatment. J Virol. 1998;72:4265-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Young TN, Arens FJ, Kennedy GE, Laurie JW, Rutherford Gw. Antiretroviral post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for occupational HIV exposure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;:CD002835.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Risk Assessment of the Occupational Exposure Event

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Chavez P, Wesolowski L, Patel P, Delaney K, Owen SM. Evaluation of the performance of the Abbott ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo Assay. J Clin Virol. 2011 Dec;52 Suppl 1:S51-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg NE, Kamanga G, Phiri S, et al. Detection of acute HIV infection: a field evaluation of the determine® HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo test. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:528-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Recommended Initial Steps Following An Exposure Event

Beltrami EM, Luo CC, de la Torre N, Cardo DM. Transmission of drug-resistant HIV after an occupational exposure despite postexposure prophylaxis with a combination drug regimen. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002;23:345-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Serious adverse events attributed to nevirapine regimens for postexposure prophylaxis after HIV exposures--worldwide, 1997-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;49:1153-6.

MMWR»

PubMed Abstract»

Lopes GI, Coelho LP, Hornke L, et al. Transmission of a multidrug-resistant HIV-1 from an occupational exposure, in São Paulo, Brazil. AIDS. 2015;29:1580-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for the antiretroviral-naïve patient. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Raesima MM, Ogbuabo CM, Thomas V, et al. Dolutegravir Use at Conception - Additional Surveillance Data from Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:885-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Shah BM, Schafer JJ, Desimone JA Jr. Dolutegravir: a new integrase strand transfer inhibitor for the treatment of HIV. Pharmacotherapy. 2014;34:506-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Recommended Antiretroviral Regimens for Occupational HIV PEP

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Updated Guidelines for Antiretroviral Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual, Injection Drug Use, and Other Nonoccupational Exposure to HIV—United States, 2016.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for the antiretroviral-naïve patient. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Baseline Evaluation and Counseling for Health Care Worker

PubMed Abstract»

Schillie S, Murphy TV, Sawyer M, et al. CDC guidance for evaluating health-care personnel for hepatitis B virus protection and for administering postexposure management. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2013;62:1-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 3. Occupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Follow-Up of Health Care Worker After Exposure Event

PubMed Abstract»

Ridzon R, Gallagher K, Ciesielski C, et al. Simultaneous transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus from a needle-stick injury. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:919-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Irvine C, Shubber Z, et al. Adherence to HIV postexposure prophylaxis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2014;28:2721-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee LM, Henderson DK. Tolerability of postexposure antiretroviral prophylaxis for occupational exposures to HIV. Drug Saf. 2001;24:587-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for the antiretroviral-naïve patient. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Rosenberg NE, Kamanga G, Phiri S, et al. Detection of acute HIV infection: a field evaluation of the determine® HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo test. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:528-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Siegfried N, van der Merwe L, Brocklehurst P, Sint TT. Antiretrovirals for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;:CD003510.

PubMed Abstract»

Strick LB, Wald A, Celum C. Management of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in HIV type 1-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:347-56.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Public Health Service. Updated Information Regarding Antiretroviral Agents Used as HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis for Occupational HIV Exposures. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2007;56(49):1291-2.

U.S. Public Health Service»

Wang SA, Panlilio AL, Doi PA, White AD, Stek M Jr, Saah A. Experience of healthcare workers taking postexposure prophylaxis after occupational HIV exposures: findings of the HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Registry. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2000;21:780-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Webster DP. Is HIV post-exposure prophylaxis required following occupational exposure to a source patient who is virologically suppressed on antiretroviral therapy? HIV Med. 2015;16:73-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Wood R, Gathe JC, Givens N, Sedani S, Cheng K, Sievers J. Long-term safety study of fosamprenavir-containing regimens in HIV-1-infected patients. HIV Clin Trials. 2013;14:183-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: Genital HSV infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Makhema J, Shapiro RL. Neural-Tube Defects with Dolutegravir Treatment from the Time of Conception. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:979-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Introduction and Background

Bogoch II, Scully EP, Zachary KC, et al. Patient attrition between the emergency department and clinic among individuals presenting for HIV nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1618-24.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Hall HI, Song R, Tang T, et al. HIV Trends in the United States: Diagnoses and Estimated Incidence. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2017;3:e8.

PubMed Abstract»

Koblin BA, Usher D, Nandi V, et al. Post-exposure Prophylaxis Awareness, Knowledge, Access and Use Among Three Populations in New York City, 2016-17. AIDS Behav. 2018;22:2718-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodríguez AE, Castel AD, Parish CL, et al. HIV medical providers' perceptions of the use of antiretroviral therapy as nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis in 2 major metropolitan areas. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;64 Suppl 1:S68-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Roland ME, Neilands TB, Krone MR, et al. Seroconversion following nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis against HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1507-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith DK, Grohskopf LA, Black RJ, et al. Antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection-drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV in the United States: recommendations from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54(No. RR-2):1-20.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Rationale for Providing Nonoccupational HIV PEP

Al-Hajjar SH, Frayha HH, Al-Hazmi M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 transmission with postexposure prophylaxis after inadvertent infected blood transfusion. AIDS. 2014;28:1539-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2014. HIV Surveillance Report, 2014; vol. 26:1-123. Published November 2015.

CDC»

Chacko L, Ford N, Sbaiti M, Siddiqui R. Adherence to HIV post-exposure prophylaxis in victims of sexual assault: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sex Transm Infect. 2012;88:335-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Crawford ND, Vlahov D. Progress in HIV reduction and prevention among injection and noninjection drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55 Suppl 2:S84-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Dobard C, Sharma S, Parikh UM, et al. Postexposure protection of macaques from vaginal SHIV infection by topical integrase inhibitors. Sci Transl Med. 2014;6:227ra35.

PubMed Abstract»

Draughon JE, Sheridan DJ. Nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis following sexual assault in industrialized low-HIV-prevalence countries: a review. Psychol Health Med. 2012;17:235-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Draughon Moret JE, Hauda WE 2nd, Price B, Sheridan DJ. Nonoccupational Postexposure Human Immunodeficiency Virus Prophylaxis: Acceptance Following Sexual Assault. Nurs Res. 2016;65:47-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Fletcher JB, Rusow JA, Le H, Landovitz RJ, Reback CJ. High-risk Sexual Behavior is Associated with Post-Exposure Prophylaxis Non-adherence among Men who have Sex with Men Enrolled in a Combination Prevention Intervention. J Sex Transm Dis. 2013;2013:210403.

PubMed Abstract»

Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;354:795-802.

PubMed Abstract»

Gulholm T, Jamani S, Poynten IM, Templeton DJ. Non-occupational HIV post-exposure prophylaxis at a Sydney metropolitan sexual health clinic. Sex Health. 2013;10:438-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Irvine C, Egan KJ, Shubber Z, Van Rompay KK, Beanland RL, Ford N. Efficacy of HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Nonhuman Primate Studies. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60 Suppl 3:S165-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Jain S, Oldenburg CE, Mimiaga MJ, Mayer KH. Subsequent HIV infection among men who have sex with men who used non-occupational post-exposure prophylaxis at a Boston community health center: 1997-2013. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:20-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahn JO, Martin JN, Roland ME, et al. Feasibility of postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) against human immunodeficiency virus infection after sexual or injection drug use exposure: the San Francisco PEP Study. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:707-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, et al. Single-dose perinatal nevirapine plus standard zidovudine to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Thailand. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:217-28.

PubMed Abstract»

Loutfy MR, Macdonald S, Myhr T, et al. Prospective cohort study of HIV post-exposure prophylaxis for sexual assault survivors. Antivir Ther. 2008;13:87-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Patel P, Borkowf CB, Brooks JT, Lasry A, Lansky A, Mermin J. Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review. AIDS. 2014;28:1509-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Pierce AB, Yohannes K, Guy R, et al. HIV seroconversions among male non-occupational post-exposure prophylaxis service users: a data linkage study. Sex Health. 2011;8:179-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Rey D, Bendiane MK, Bouhnik AD, Almeda J, Moatti JP, Carrieri MP. Physicians' and patients' adherence to antiretroviral prophylaxis after sexual exposure to HIV: results from South-Eastern France. AIDS Care. 2008;20:537-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Roland ME, Myer L, Martin LJ, et al. Preventing human immunodeficiency virus infection among sexual assault survivors in Cape Town, South Africa: an observational study. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:990-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Roland ME, Neilands TB, Krone MR, et al. Seroconversion following nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis against HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1507-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Schechter M, do Lago RF, Mendelsohn AB, Moreira RI, Moulton LH, Harrison LH; for the Praca Onze Study Team. Behavioral Impact, Acceptability, and HIV Incidence Among Homosexual Men With Access to Postexposure Chemoprophylaxis for HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;35:519-25.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Sonder GJ, Prins JM, Regez RM, et al. Comparison of two HIV postexposure prophylaxis regimens among men who have sex with men in Amsterdam: adverse effects do not influence compliance. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37:681-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Taha TE, Li Q, Hoover DR, et al. Postexposure prophylaxis of breastfeeding HIV-exposed infants with antiretroviral drugs to age 14 weeks: updated efficacy results of the PEPI-Malawi trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;57:319-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Tissot F, Erard V, Dang T, Cavassini M. Nonoccupational HIV post-exposure prophylaxis: a 10-year retrospective analysis. HIV Med. 2010;11:584-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Woldesenbet S, Jackson D, Lombard C, et al. Missed Opportunities along the Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission Services Cascade in South Africa: Uptake, Determinants, and Attributable Risk (the SAPMTCTE). PLoS One. 2015;10:e0132425.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Evaluation for Nonoccupational HIV PEP

Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:118-29.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Leynaert B, Downs AM, de Vincenzi I. Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;148:88-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Antiretroviral therapy to prevent sexual transmission of HIV (treatment as prevention). December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Patel P, Borkowf CB, Brooks JT, Lasry A, Lansky A, Mermin J. Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review. AIDS. 2014;28:1509-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Royce RA, Sena A, Cates W Jr, Cohen MS. Sexual transmission of HIV. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1072-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Varghese B, Maher JE, Peterman TA, Branson BM, Steketee RW. Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use. Sex Transm Dis. 2002;29:38-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Recommended Therapy for Nonoccupational HIV PEP

Anglemyer A, Rutherford GW, Baggaley RC, Egger M, Siegfried N. Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of HIV transmission in HIV-discordant couples. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;:CD009153.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. Update: Interim Statement Regarding Potential Fetal Harm from Exposure to Dolutegravir—Implications for HIV Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP).

CDC»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Foster R, McAllister J, Read TR, et al. Single-tablet emtricitabine-rilpivirine-tenofovir as HIV postexposure prophylaxis in men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1336-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Liu A, Xin R, Zhang H, et al. An open-label evaluation of safety and tolerability of coformulated bictegravir/emtricitabine/tenofovir alafenamide for post-exposure prophylaxis following potential exposure to human immunodeficiency virus-1. Chin Med J (Engl). 2022;135:2725-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mayer KH, Gelman M, Holmes J, Kraft J, Melbourne K, Mimiaga MJ. Safety and Tolerability of Once Daily Coformulated Bictegravir, Emtricitabine, and Tenofovir Alafenamide for Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual Exposure. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2022;90:27-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Mayer KH, Jones D, Oldenburg C, et al. Optimal HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Regimen Completion With Single Tablet Daily Elvitegravir/Cobicistat/Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate/Emtricitabine Compared With More Frequent Dosing Regimens. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:535-539.

PubMed Abstract»

Mayer KH, Mimiaga MJ, Gelman M, Grasso C. Raltegravir, tenofovir DF, and emtricitabine for postexposure prophylaxis to prevent the sexual transmission of HIV: safety, tolerability, and adherence. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;59:354-9.

PubMed Abstract»

McAllister J, Read P, McNulty A, Tong WW, Ingersoll A, Carr A. Raltegravir-emtricitabine-tenofovir as HIV nonoccupational post-exposure prophylaxis in men who have sex with men: safety, tolerability and adherence. HIV Med. 2014;15:13-22.

PubMed Abstract»

McAllister JW, Towns JM, Mcnulty A, et al. Dolutegravir with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-emtricitabine as HIV postexposure prophylaxis in gay and bisexual men. AIDS. 2017;31:1291-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Appendix B: Drug characteristics tables. Antiretroviral dosing recommendations in patients with renal or hepatic insufficiency. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Sekar VJ, Lefebvre E, Guzman SS, Felicione E, De Pauw M, Vangeneugden T, Hoetelmans RM. Pharmacokinetic interaction between ethinyl estradiol, norethindrone and darunavir with low-dose ritonavir in healthy women. Antivir Ther. 2008;13:563-9.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Laboratory Testing for Source and Exposed Persons

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Nonoccupational HIV PEP in Special Populations and Circumstances

MMWR»

CDC»

Chapman LE, Sullivent EE, Grohskopf LA, et al. Postexposure interventions to prevent infection with HBV, HCV, or HIV, and tetanus in people wounded during bombings and other mass casualty events--United States, 2008: recommendations of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2008;2:150-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Federal Bureau of Prisons Clinical Guidance. Medical management of exposures: HIV, HBV, HCV, human bites, and sexual exposures. April 2017.

Federal Bureau of Prisons»

Fessel J, Hurley LB. Incidence of pancreatitis in HIV-infected patients: comment on findings in EuroSIDA cohort. AIDS. 2008;22:145-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kopp JB, Miller KD, Mican JM, et al. Crystalluria and urinary tract abnormalities associated with indinavir. Ann Intern Med. 1997;127:119-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Lactic Acidosis International Study Group 2007. Risk factors for lactic acidosis and severe hyperlactataemia in HIV-1-infected adults exposed to antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2007;21:2455-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Makhema J, Shapiro RL. Neural-Tube Defects with Dolutegravir Treatment from the Time of Conception. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:979-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Initial Medication Prescription and Follow-up after Evaluation

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Transitioning from Nonoccupational HIV PEP to HIV PrEP

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Choopanya K, Martin M, Suntharasamai P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV infection in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand (the Bangkok Tenofovir Study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2013;381:2083-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Mayer KH, Molina JM, Thompson MA, et al. Emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide vs emtricitabine and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (DISCOVER): primary results from a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, active-controlled, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2020;396:239-54.

PubMed Abstract»

McCormack S, Dunn DT, Desai M, et al. Pre-exposure prophylaxis to prevent the acquisition of HIV-1 infection (PROUD): effectiveness results from the pilot phase of a pragmatic open-label randomised trial. Lancet. 2016;387:53-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:423-34.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Van Damme L, Corneli A, Ahmed K, et al. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection among African women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:411-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 4. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Concerns with Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis

Jain S, Mayer KH. Practical guidance for nonoccupational postexposure prophylaxis to prevent HIV infection: an editorial review. AIDS. 2014;28:1545-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Martin JN, Roland ME, Neilands TB, et al. Use of postexposure prophylaxis against HIV infection following sexual exposure does not lead to increases in high-risk behavior. AIDS. 2004;18:787-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Waldo CR, Stall RD, Coates TJ. Is offering post-exposure prevention for sexual exposures to HIV related to sexual risk behavior in gay men? AIDS. 2000;14:1035–9.

PubMed Abstract»

Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9:118-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:427-39.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

CDC»

Chauveau M, Billaud E, Bonnet B, et al. Tenofovir DF/emtricitabine/rilpivirine as HIV post-exposure prophylaxis: results from a multicentre prospective study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019;74:1021-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Dobard C, Sharma S, Parikh UM, et al. Postexposure protection of macaques from vaginal SHIV infection by topical integrase inhibitors. Sci Transl Med. 2014;6:227ra35.

PubMed Abstract»

Dolezal C, Frasca T, Giguere R, et al. Awareness of Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) and Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) Is Low but Interest Is High Among Men Engaging in Condomless Anal Sex With Men in Boston, Pittsburgh, and San Juan. AIDS Educ Prev. 2015;27:289-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Donnell D, Mimiaga MJ, Mayer K, Chesney M, Koblin B, Coates T. Use of non-occupational post-exposure prophylaxis does not lead to an increase in high risk sex behaviors in men who have sex with men participating in the EXPLORE trial. AIDS Behav. 2010;14:1182-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Eisinger RW, Dieffenbach CW, Fauci AS. HIV Viral Load and Transmissibility of HIV Infection: Undetectable Equals Untransmittable. JAMA. 2019;321:451-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Foster R, McAllister J, Read TR, et al. Single-tablet emtricitabine-rilpivirine-tenofovir as HIV postexposure prophylaxis in men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1336-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Jain S, Krakower DS, Mayer KH. The Transition From Postexposure Prophylaxis to Preexposure Prophylaxis: An Emerging Opportunity for Biobehavioral HIV Prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60 Suppl 3:S200-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaplan JE, Benson C, Holmes KK, et al. Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2009;58(RR-4):1-207.

CDC and Prevention»

Keating TM, Kurth AE, Wald A, Kahle EM, Barash EA, Buskin SE. Clinical burden of herpes simplex virus disease in people with human immunodeficiency virus. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:372-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Krakower DS, Jain S, Mayer KH. Antiretrovirals for primary HIV prevention: the current status of pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2015;12:127-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Merchant RC, Keshavarz R. Human immunodeficiency virus postexposure prophylaxis for adolescents and children. Pediatrics. 2001;108:E38.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Antiretroviral therapy to prevent sexual transmission of HIV (treatment as prevention). December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Patel P, Borkowf CB, Brooks JT, Lasry A, Lansky A, Mermin J. Estimating per-act HIV transmission risk: a systematic review. AIDS. 2014;28:1509-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Pretty IA, Anderson GS, Sweet DJ. Human bites and the risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1999;20:232-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodriguez-French A, Boghossian J, Gray GE, et al. The NEAT study: a 48-week open-label study to compare the antiviral efficacy and safety of GW433908 versus nelfinavir in antiretroviral therapy-naive HIV-1-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;35:22-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Terzi R, Niero F, Iemoli E, Capetti A, Coen M, Rizzardini G. Late HIV seroconversion after non-occupational postexposure prophylaxis against HIV with concomitant hepatitis C virus seroconversion. AIDS. 2007;21:262-3.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by genital, anal, or perianal ulcers: Genital HSV infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Introduction

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Haberer JE, Liu AY, Sista N. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: where have we been and where are we going? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S122-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Heffron R. Pre-exposure prophylaxis to intensify the fight against HIV. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:443-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Beymer MR, Holloway IW, Pulsipher C, Landovitz RJ. Current and Future PrEP Medications and Modalities: On-demand, Injectables, and Topicals. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2019;16:349-58.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Infection, Risk, Prevention, and Testing Behaviors Among Men Who Have Sex With Men—National HIV Behavioral Surveillance, 23 U.S. Cities, 2017. HIV Surveillance Special Report 22:1-30. Published February 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: US Public Health Service: Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2021 Update: clinical providers’ supplement. December 2021:1-53.

CDC»

Chasela CS, Hudgens MG, Jamieson DJ, et al. Maternal or infant antiretroviral drugs to reduce HIV-1 transmission. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:2271-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Chou R, Spencer H, Bougatsos C, Blazina I, Ahmed A, Selph S. Preexposure Prophylaxis for the Prevention of HIV: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2023;330:746-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Coelho LE, Torres TS, Veloso VG, Landovitz RJ, Grinsztejn B. Pre-exposure prophylaxis 2.0: new drugs and technologies in the pipeline. Lancet HIV. 2019;6:e788-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Gandhi RT, Bedimo R, Hoy JF, et al. Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults: 2022 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2023;329:63-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Song R, Tang T, et al. HIV Trends in the United States: Diagnoses and Estimated Incidence. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2017;3:e8.

PubMed Abstract»

Marshall BDL, Goedel WC, King MRF, et al. Potential effectiveness of long-acting injectable pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men: a modelling study. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e498-e505.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith DK, Van Handel M, Wolitski RJ, et al. Vital Signs: Estimated Percentages and Numbers of Adults with Indications for Preexposure Prophylaxis to Prevent HIV Acquisition--United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:1291-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:423-34.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Truvada for PrEP Fact Sheet: Ensuring Safe and Proper Use. July 2012

FDA»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves second drug to prevent HIV infection as part of ongoing efforts to end the HIV epidemic. October 3, 2019

U.S. FDA»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Owens DK, Davidson KW, et al. Preexposure Prophylaxis for the Prevention of HIV Infection: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2019;321:2203-13.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force; Barry MJ, Nicholson WK, Silverstein M, et al. Preexposure Prophylaxis to Prevent Acquisition of HIV: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2023;330:736-45.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Persons to Consider for HIV PrEP

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Health and Human Services. America's HIV Epidemic Analysis Dashboard (AHEAD). PrEP Coverage.

AHEAD»

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Recommended Regimens and Dosing for HIV PrEP

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Brubaker SG, Bukusi EA, Odoyo J, Achando J, Okumu A, Cohen CR. Pregnancy and HIV transmission among HIV-discordant couples in a clinical trial in Kisumu, Kenya. HIV Med. 2011;12:316-21.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Clark H, Babu AS, Wiewel EW, Opoku J, Crepaz N. Diagnosed HIV Infection in Transgender Adults and Adolescents: Results from the National HIV Surveillance System, 2009-2014. AIDS Behav. 2017;21:2774-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Cottrell ML, Prince HMA, Schauer AP, et al. Decreased tenofovir diphosphate concentrations in a transgender female cohort: implications for human immunodeficiency virus preexposure prophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69:2201-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Deutsch MB, Glidden DV, Sevelius J, et al. HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis in transgender women: a subgroup analysis of the iPrEx trial. Lancet HIV. 2015;2:e512-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Deutsch MB. Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in Trans Populations: Providing Gender-Affirming Prevention for Trans People at High Risk of Acquiring HIV. LGBT Health. 2018;5:387-390.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Pellegrini M, Defechereux PA, et al. Sex Hormone Therapy and Tenofovir Diphosphate Concentration in Dried Blood Spots: Primary Results of the Interactions Between Antiretrovirals And Transgender Hormones Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e2117-e2123.

PubMed Abstract»

Hapgood JP, Kaushic C, Hel Z. Hormonal Contraception and HIV-1 Acquisition: Biological Mechanisms. Endocr Rev. 2018;39:36-78.

PubMed Abstract»

Heffron R, Ngure K, Velloza J, et al. Implementation of a comprehensive safer conception intervention for HIV-serodiscordant couples in Kenya: uptake, use and effectiveness. J Int AIDS Soc. 2019;22:e25261.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Mofenson LM, Baggaley RC, Mameletzis I. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate safety for women and their infants during pregnancy and breastfeeding. AIDS. 2017;31:213-232.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugo NR, Heffron R, Donnell D, et al. Increased risk of HIV-1 transmission in pregnancy: a prospective study among African HIV-1-serodiscordant couples. AIDS. 2011;25:1887-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) to Prevent HIV During Periconception, Antepartum, and Postpartum Periods. December 30, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Shieh E, Marzinke MA, Fuchs EJ, et al. Transgender women on oral HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis have significantly lower tenofovir and emtricitabine concentrations when also taking oestrogen when compared to cisgender men. J Int AIDS Soc. 2019;22:e25405.

PubMed Abstract»

Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:423-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Trezza C, Ford SL, Gould E, et al. Lack of effect of oral cabotegravir on the pharmacokinetics of a levonorgestrel/ethinyl oestradiol-containing oral contraceptive in healthy adult women. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2017;83:1499-1505.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves second drug to prevent HIV infection as part of ongoing efforts to end the HIV epidemic. October 3, 2019

U.S. FDA»

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Baseline Laboratory Evaluation, Immunizations, and Counseling

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for Ages 18 Years or Younger, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Mpox Vaccination Basics. Updated May 5, 2023

CDC»

Conners EE, Panagiotakopoulos L, Hofmeister MG, et al. Screening and Testing for Hepatitis B Virus Infection: CDC Recommendations - United States, 2023. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2023;72:1-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Foster MA, Hofmeister MG, Kupronis BA, et al. Increase in Hepatitis A Virus Infections - United States, 2013-2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:413-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Honkoop P, de Man RA, Niesters HG, Zondervan PE, Schalm SW. Acute exacerbation of chronic hepatitis B virus infection after withdrawal of lamivudine therapy. Hepatology. 2000;32:635-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Joseph Davey DL, Pintye J, Baeten JM, et al. Emerging evidence from a systematic review of safety of pre-exposure prophylaxis for pregnant and postpartum women: where are we now and where are we heading? J Int AIDS Soc. 2020;23:e25426.

PubMed Abstract»

Mofenson LM, Baggaley RC, Mameletzis I. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate safety for women and their infants during pregnancy and breastfeeding. AIDS. 2017;31:213-232.

PubMed Abstract»

Schillie S, Wester C, Osborne M, Wesolowski L, Ryerson AB. CDC Recommendations for Hepatitis C Screening Among Adults - United States, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Schwartz SR, Bassett J, Mutunga L, et al. HIV incidence, pregnancy, and implementation outcomes from the Sakh'umndeni safer conception project in South Africa: a prospective cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2019;6:e438-e446.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Major HIV PrEP Studies

Abdool Karim Q, Abdool Karim SS, Frohlich JA, et al. Effectiveness and safety of tenofovir gel, an antiretroviral microbicide, for the prevention of HIV infection in women. Science. 2010;329:1168-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Palanee-Phillips T, Brown ER, et al. Use of a vaginal ring containing dapivirine for HIV-1 prevention in women. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:2121-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Buchbinder SP, Glidden DV, Liu AY, et al. HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis in men who have sex with men and transgender women: a secondary analysis of a phase 3 randomised controlled efficacy trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:468-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, Ramjee G, Richardson BA, et al. Tenofovir-based preexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection among African women. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:509-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Nel A, van Niekerk N, Kapiga S, et al. Safety and efficacy of a dapivirine vaginal ring for HIV prevention in women. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:2133-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:423-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Damme L, Corneli A, Ahmed K, et al. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection among African women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:411-22.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Straten A, Stadler J, Luecke E, Laborde N, Hartmann M, Montgomery ET. Perspectives on use of oral and vaginal antiretrovirals for HIV prevention: the VOICE-C qualitative study in Johannesburg, South Africa. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19146.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Time to Achieve Protection after Initiating HIV PrEP

Anderson PL, Kiser JJ, Gardner EM, Rower JE, Meditz A, Grant RM. Pharmacological considerations for tenofovir and emtricitabine to prevent HIV infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:240-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Cottrell ML, Garrett KL, Prince HMA, et al. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of tenofovir alafenamide and its active metabolite in the mucosal tissues. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017;72:1731-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Patterson KB, Prince HA, Kraft E, et al. Penetration of tenofovir and emtricitabine in mucosal tissues: implications for prevention of HIV-1 transmission. Sci Transl Med. 2011;3:112re4.

PubMed Abstract»

Saag MS, Benson CA, Gandhi RT, et al. Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults: 2018 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2018;320:379-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Saag MS, Gandhi RT, Hoy JF, et al. Antiretroviral Drugs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection in Adults: 2020 Recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2020;324:1651-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Seifert SM, Glidden DV, Meditz AL, et al. Dose response for starting and stopping HIV preexposure prophylaxis for men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:804-10.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Impact of Adherence on Efficacy of HIV PrEP

Aaron E, Cohan D. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV transmission to women. AIDS. 2013;27:F1-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Heffron R. Pre-exposure prophylaxis to intensify the fight against HIV. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:443-5.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Jourdain H, de Gage SB, Desplas D, Dray-Spira R. Real-world effectiveness of pre-exposure prophylaxis in men at high risk of HIV infection in France: a nested case-control study. Lancet Public Health. 2022;7:e529-e536.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Sivay MV, Li M, Piwowar-Manning E, et al. Characterization of HIV Seroconverters in a TDF/FTC PrEP Study: HPTN 067/ADAPT. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:271-9.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Van Damme L, Corneli A, Ahmed K, et al. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection among African women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:411-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Laboratory Monitoring on HIV PrEP

CDC»

Daar ES, Pilcher CD, Hecht FM. Clinical presentation and diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2008;3:10-5.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Wang L, Kourtis AP, Ellington S, Legardy-Williams J, Bulterys M. Safety of tenofovir during pregnancy for the mother and fetus: a systematic review. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1773-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Acquisition of HIV in the Setting of HIV PrEP

CDC»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

HIV PrEP and Development of HIV Drug Resistance

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Knox DC, Anderson PL, Harrigan PR, Tan DH. Multidrug-resistant HIV-1 infection despite preexposure prophylaxis. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:501-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Lehman DA, Baeten JM, McCoy CO, et al. Risk of drug resistance among persons acquiring HIV within a randomized clinical trial of single- or dual-agent preexposure prophylaxis. J Infect Dis. 2015;211:1211-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Liegler T, Abdel-Mohsen M, Bentley LG, et al. HIV-1 drug resistance in the iPrEx preexposure prophylaxis trial. J Infect Dis. 2014;210:1217-27.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

van de Vijver DA, Nichols BE, Abbas UL, et al. Preexposure prophylaxis will have a limited impact on HIV-1 drug resistance in sub-Saharan Africa: a comparison of mathematical models. AIDS. 2013;27:2943-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Adverse Effects of Medications Used for HIV PrEP

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Haberer JE, Liu AY, Sista N. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: where have we been and where are we going? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S122-9.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Glidden DV, Mulligan K, McMahan V, et al. Brief Report: Recovery of Bone Mineral Density After Discontinuation of Tenofovir-Based HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;76:177-182.

PubMed Abstract»

Kasonde M, Niska RW, Rose C, et al. Bone mineral density changes among HIV-uninfected young adults in a randomised trial of pre-exposure prophylaxis with tenofovir-emtricitabine or placebo in Botswana. PLoS One. 2014;9:e90111.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Liu AY, Vittinghoff E, Sellmeyer DE, et al. Bone mineral density in HIV-negative men participating in a tenofovir pre-exposure prophylaxis randomized clinical trial in San Francisco. PLoS One. 2011;6:e23688.

PubMed Abstract»

Mirembe BG, Kelly CW, Mgodi N, et al. Bone Mineral Density Changes Among Young, Healthy African Women Receiving Oral Tenofovir for HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;71:287-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugwanya K, Baeten J, Celum C, et al. Low risk of proximal tubular dysfunction associated with emtricitabine-tenofovir disoproxil fumarate preexposure prophylaxis in men and women. J Infect Dis. 2016;214:1050-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugwanya KK, Wyatt C, Celum C, et al. Changes in glomerular kidney function among HIV-1-uninfected men and women receiving emtricitabine-tenofovir disoproxil fumarate preexposure prophylaxis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:246-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugwanya KK, Wyatt C, Celum C, et al. Reversibility of glomerular renal function decline in HIV-uninfected men and women discontinuing emtricitabine-tenofovir disoproxil fumarate pre-exposure prophylaxis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;71:374-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Mulligan K, Glidden DV, Anderson PL, et al. Effects of Emtricitabine/Tenofovir on Bone Mineral Density in HIV-Negative Persons in a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:572-80.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Changes in Sexual Practices Among Persons Receiving HIV PrEP

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Heffron R. Pre-exposure prophylaxis to intensify the fight against HIV. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:443-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Freeborn K, Portillo CJ. Does pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men change risk behaviour? A systematic review. J Clin Nurs. 2018;27:3254-3265.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Anderson PL, McMahan V, et al. Uptake of pre-exposure prophylaxis, sexual practices, and HIV incidence in men and transgender women who have sex with men: a cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:820-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Kojima N, Davey DJ, Klausner JD. Pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV infection and new sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men. AIDS. 2016;30:2251-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Lal L, Audsley J, Murphy DA, et al. Medication adherence, condom use and sexually transmitted infections in Australian preexposure prophylaxis users. AIDS. 2017;31:1709-1714.

PubMed Abstract»

Marcus JL, Glidden DV, Mayer KH, et al. No evidence of sexual risk compensation in the iPrEx trial of daily oral HIV preexposure prophylaxis. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81997.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Charreau I, Spire B, et al. Efficacy, safety, and effect on sexual behaviour of on-demand pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV in men who have sex with men: an observational cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e402-e410.

PubMed Abstract»

Nguyen VK, Greenwald ZR, Trottier H, et al. Incidence of sexually transmitted infections before and after preexposure prophylaxis for HIV. AIDS. 2018;32:523-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Scott HM, Klausner JD. Sexually transmitted infections and pre-exposure prophylaxis: challenges and opportunities among men who have sex with men in the US. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:5.

PubMed Abstract»

Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:423-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Traeger MW, Guy R, Asselin J, et al. Real-world trends in incidence of bacterial sexually transmissible infections among gay and bisexual men using HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in Australia following nationwide PrEP implementation: an analysis of sentinel surveillance data. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22:1231-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Traeger MW, Schroeder SE, Wright EJ, et al. Effects of Pre-exposure Prophylaxis for the Prevention of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection on Sexual Risk Behavior in Men Who Have Sex With Men: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:676-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Discontinuing PrEP

Baeten JM, Haberer JE, Liu AY, Sista N. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: where have we been and where are we going? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63 Suppl 2:S122-9.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Honkoop P, de Man RA, Niesters HG, Zondervan PE, Schalm SW. Acute exacerbation of chronic hepatitis B virus infection after withdrawal of lamivudine therapy. Hepatology. 2000;32:635-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Li S, Grinsztejn B, et al. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of long-acting injectable cabotegravir in low-risk HIV-uninfected individuals: HPTN 077, a phase 2a randomized controlled trial. PLoS Med. 2018;15:e1002690.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Transitioning from Nonoccupational HIV PEP to HIV PrEP

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Siemieniuk RA, Sivachandran N, Murphy P, et al. Transitioning to HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) from Non-Occupational Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (nPEP) in a Comprehensive HIV Prevention Clinic: A Prospective Cohort Study. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:431-6.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Disparities in HIV PrEP Use

CDC»

Dodge B, Ford JV, Bo N, et al. HIV Risk and Prevention Outcomes in a Probability-Based Sample of Gay and Bisexual Men in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2019;82:355-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Henny KD, Huang YA, Hoover KW. Low Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Testing Rates and No HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Prescribed Among Female Patients Diagnosed With a Sexually Transmitted Infection, 2017-2018. Obstet Gynecol. 2020;136:1083-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Hodges-Mameletzis I, Fonner VA, Dalal S, Mugo N, Msimanga-Radebe B, Baggaley R. Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV Prevention in Women: Current Status and Future Directions. Drugs. 2019;79:1263-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Hojilla JC, Hurley LB, Marcus JL, et al. Characterization of HIV preexposure prophylaxis use behaviors and HIV incidence among US adults in an integrated health care system. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4:e2122692.

PubMed Abstract»

Kanny D, Jeffries WL 4th, Chapin-Bardales J, et al. Racial/Ethnic Disparities in HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Among Men Who Have Sex with Men - 23 Urban Areas, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:801-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Koren DE, Nichols JS, Simoncini GM. HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis and Women: Survey of the Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs in an Urban Obstetrics/Gynecology Clinic. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2018;32:490-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Rolle CP, Onwubiko U, Jo J, Sheth AN, Kelley CF, Holland DP. PrEP Implementation and Persistence in a County Health Department Setting in Atlanta, GA. AIDS Behav. 2019;23:296-303.

PubMed Abstract»

Serota DP, Rosenberg ES, Sullivan PS, et al. Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Uptake and Discontinuation Among Young Black Men Who Have Sex With Men in Atlanta, Georgia: A Prospective Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:574-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Song HJ, Squires P, Wilson D, Lo-Ciganic WH, Cook RL, Park H. Trends in HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Prescribing in the United States, 2012-2018. JAMA. 2020;324:395-7.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves second drug to prevent HIV infection as part of ongoing efforts to end the HIV epidemic. October 3, 2019

U.S. FDA»

Module 5 » Lesson 5. HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Future HIV PrEP Medications

Andrews CD, Bernard LS, Poon AY, et al. Cabotegravir long acting injection protects macaques against intravenous challenge with SIVmac251. AIDS. 2017;31:461-467.

PubMed Abstract»

Baeten JM, Heffron R. Pre-exposure prophylaxis to intensify the fight against HIV. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:443-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Beymer MR, Holloway IW, Pulsipher C, Landovitz RJ. Current and Future PrEP Medications and Modalities: On-demand, Injectables, and Topicals. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2019;16:349-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Cambou MC, Landovitz RJ. Challenges and Opportunities for Preexposure Prophylaxis. Top Antivir Med. 2021;29:399-406.

PubMed Abstract»

Celum C, Baeten JM. Tenofovir-based pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: evolving evidence. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2012;25:51-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Chen BA, Panther L, Marzinke MA, et al. Phase 1 Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics of Dapivirine and Maraviroc Vaginal Rings: A Double-Blind Randomized Trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:242-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Dvory-Sobol H, Shaik N, Callebaut C, Rhee MS. Lenacapavir: a first-in-class HIV-1 capsid inhibitor. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2022;17:15-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Markowitz M, Frank I, Grant RM, et al. Safety and tolerability of long-acting cabotegravir injections in HIV-uninfected men (ECLAIR): a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 2a trial. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e331-e340.

PubMed Abstract»

Nel A, van Niekerk N, Kapiga S, et al. Safety and efficacy of a dapivirine vaginal ring for HIV prevention in women. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:2133-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Taha H, Morgan J, Das A, Das S. Parenteral patent drug S/GSK1265744 has the potential to be an effective agent in pre-exposure prophylaxis against HIV infection. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 2013;8:213-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Mpox Vaccination Basics. Updated May 5, 2023

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Eppes CS, McKinney J. Incorporating Preexposure Prophylaxis Into Routine Reproductive Health Care. Obstet Gynecol. 2020;136:1080-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Harawa NT, Holloway IW, Leibowitz A, et al. Serious concerns regarding a meta-analysis of preexposure prophylaxis use and STI acquisition. AIDS. 2017;31:739-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Hoornenborg E, Coyer L, Achterbergh RCA, et al. Sexual behaviour and incidence of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men using daily and event-driven pre-exposure prophylaxis in AMPrEP: 2 year results from a demonstration study. Lancet HIV. 2019;6:e447-e455.

PubMed Abstract»

Katz KA, Klausner JD. Azithromycin resistance in Treponema pallidum. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:83-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Liu AY, Cohen SE, Vittinghoff E, et al. Preexposure Prophylaxis for HIV Infection Integrated With Municipal- and Community-Based Sexual Health Services. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:75-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, del Rio C, Holtgrave DR, et al. HIV prevention in clinical care settings: 2014 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA Panel. JAMA. 2014;312:390-409.

PubMed Abstract»

Mofenson LM, Baggaley RC, Mameletzis I. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate safety for women and their infants during pregnancy and breastfeeding. AIDS. 2017;31:213-232.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Moodley D, Lombard C, Govender V, et al. Pregnancy and neonatal safety outcomes of timing of initiation of daily oral tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention (CAP016): an open-label, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2023;10:e154-e163.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Sivay MV, Li M, Piwowar-Manning E, et al. Characterization of HIV Seroconverters in a TDF/FTC PrEP Study: HPTN 067/ADAPT. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;75:271-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:423-34.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Department of Health and Humans Services (HHS). America's HIV Epidemic Analysis Dashboard (AHEAD).

HHS»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

Van Damme L, Corneli A, Ahmed K, et al. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection among African women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:411-22.

PubMed Abstract»

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Zeggagh J, Bauer R, Delaugerre C, et al. Incidence and risk factors for recurrent sexually transmitted infections among MSM on HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis. AIDS. 2022;36:1129-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6. Key Populations

Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Introduction

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Unexplained immunodeficiency and opportunistic infections in infants--New York, New Jersey, California. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1982;31:665-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 33:1-143. Published May 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses, deaths, and prevalence of HIV in the United States and 6 territories and freely associated states, 2022. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 35:1-177. Published May 2024.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation

EGPAF»

Little KM, Taylor AW, Borkowf CB, et al. Perinatal Antiretroviral Exposure and Prevented Mother-to-child HIV Infections in the Era of Antiretroviral Prophylaxis in the United States, 1994-2010. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36:66-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Oleske J, Minnefor A, Cooper R Jr, et al. Immune deficiency syndrome in children. JAMA. 1983;249:2345-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Recommendations of the U.S. Public Health Service Task Force on the use of zidovudine to reduce perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1994;43:1-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Rubinstein A, Sicklick M, Gupta A, et al. Acquired immunodeficiency with reversed T4/T8 ratios in infants born to promiscuous and drug-addicted mothers. JAMA. 1983;249:2350-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryan White & Global HIV/AIDS Programs. A living history.

History of Ryan White Care Act»

Ryan White: 1971-1990.

Ryan White»

Scott GB, Buck BE, Leterman JG, Bloom FL, Parks WP. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in infants. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:76-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Epidemiology of HIV in Children Younger than Age 13

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 33:1-143. Published May 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

McGowan JP, Crane M, Wiznia AA, Blum S. Combination antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;94:641-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim SR, Linley L, Gray KM, et al. Country of Birth of Children With Diagnosed HIV Infection in the United States, 2008-2014. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;77:23-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor AW, Nesheim SR, Zhang X, et al. Estimated Perinatal HIV Infection Among Infants Born in the United States, 2002-2013. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171:435-442.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Staging of Pediatric HIV Disease

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Diagnosis of HIV in Infants and Children

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Catch-up immunization schedule for persons aged 4 months–18 years who start late or who are more than 1 month behind, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for Ages 18 Years or Younger, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Bhowan K, Sherman GG. Performance of the first fourth-generation rapid human immunodeficiency virus test in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:486-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Clinical and Laboratory Monitoring of Pediatric HIV Infection. June 27, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to women with HIV infection: diagnosis of HIV infection in infants and children. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Maternal HIV testing and identification of perinatal HIV exposure January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Read JS. Diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in children younger than 18 months in the United States. Pediatrics. 2007;120:e1547-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Clinical and Laboratory Monitoring

Caldwell MB, Oxtoby MJ, Simonds RJ, Lindegren ML, Rogers MF. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1994 revised classification system for human immunodeficiency virus infection in children less than 13 years of age. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1994;43(RR-12):1-10.

MMWR»

Caldwell MB, Oxtoby MJ, Simonds RJ, Rogers MF. 1994 Revised Classification System for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Children Less Than 13 Years of Age. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1994;43(RR-12):1-10.

MMWR»

Cohen S, Caan MW, Mutsaerts HJ, et al. Cerebral injury in perinatally HIV-infected children compared to matched healthy controls. Neurology. 2016;86:19-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen S, Ter Stege JA, Geurtsen GJ, et al. Poorer cognitive performance in perinatally HIV-infected children versus healthy socioeconomically matched controls. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1111-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Dunn D. Short-term risk of disease progression in HIV-1-infected children receiving no antiretroviral therapy or zidovudine monotherapy: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2003;362:1605-11.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV Paediatric Prognostic Markers Collaborative Study, Boyd K, Dunn DT, et al. Discordance between CD4 cell count and CD4 cell percentage: implications for when to start antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infected children. AIDS. 2010;24:1213-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Mallal S, Phillips E, Carosi G, et al; PREDICT-1 Study Team. HLA-B*5701 screening for hypersensitivity to abacavir. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:568-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Mofenson LM, Harris DR, Rich K, et al. Serum HIV-1 p24 antibody, HIV-1 RNA copy number and CD4 lymphocyte percentage are independently associated with risk of mortality in HIV-1-infected children. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Intravenous Immunoglobulin Clinical Trial Study Group. AIDS. 1999;13:31-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mofenson LM, Korelitz J, Meyer WA 3rd, et al. The relationship between serum human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) RNA level, CD4 lymphocyte percent, and long-term mortality risk in HIV-1-infected children. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Intravenous Immunoglobulin Clinical Trial Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1997;175:1029-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Nichols SL, Chernoff MC, Malee KM, et al. Executive Functioning in Children and Adolescents With Perinatal HIV Infection and Perinatal HIV Exposure. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2016;5:S15-S23.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Appendix C: Supplemental information. April 11, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Saag M, Balu R, Phillips E, et al. High sensitivity of human leukocyte antigen-b*5701 as a marker for immunologically confirmed abacavir hypersensitivity in white and black patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:1111-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Antiretroviral Treatment for Children with HIV

Babiker A, Castro nee Green H, Compagnucci A, et al. First-line antiretroviral therapy with a protease inhibitor versus non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor and switch at higher versus low viral load in HIV-infected children: an open-label, randomised phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11:273-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Brady MT, Oleske JM, Williams PL, et al. Declines in mortality rates and changes in causes of death in HIV-1-infected children during the HAART era. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;53:86-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Briz V, León-Leal JA, Palladino C, et al. Potent and sustained antiviral response of raltegravir-based highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV type 1-infected children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:273-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Chiappini E, Galli L, Tovo PA, et al. Five-year follow-up of children with perinatal HIV-1 infection receiving early highly active antiretroviral therapy. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:140.

PubMed Abstract»

Cotton MF, Violari A, Otwombe K, et al. Early time-limited antiretroviral therapy versus deferred therapy in South African infants infected with HIV: results from the children with HIV early antiretroviral (CHER) randomised trial. Lancet. 2013;382:1555-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Crowell CS, Huo Y, Tassiopoulos K, et al. Early viral suppression improves neurocognitive outcomes in HIV-infected children. AIDS. 2015;29:295-304.

PubMed Abstract»

Gafni RI, Hazra R, Reynolds JC, et al. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and an optimized background regimen of antiretroviral agents as salvage therapy: impact on bone mineral density in HIV-infected children. Pediatrics. 2006;118:e711-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Hazra R, Cohen RA, Gonin R, et al. Lipid levels in the second year of life among HIV-infected and HIV-exposed uninfected Latin American children. AIDS. 2012;26:235-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Jacobson DL, Stephensen CB, Miller TL, et al. Associations of Low Vitamin D and Elevated Parathyroid Hormone Concentrations With Bone Mineral Density in Perinatally HIV-Infected Children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;76:33-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Kapogiannis BG, Soe MM, Nesheim SR, et al. Mortality trends in the US Perinatal AIDS Collaborative Transmission Study (1986-2004). Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1024-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Kekitiinwa A, Szubert AJ, Spyer M, et al. Virologic Response to First-line Efavirenz- or Nevirapine-based Antiretroviral Therapy in HIV-infected African Children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36:588-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Lewis J, Payne H, Walker AS, et al. Thymic Output and CD4 T-Cell Reconstitution in HIV-Infected Children on Early and Interrupted Antiretroviral Treatment: Evidence from the Children with HIV Early Antiretroviral Therapy Trial. Front Immunol. 2017;8:1162.

PubMed Abstract»

Melvin AJ, Warshaw M, Compagnucci A, et al. Hepatic, Renal, Hematologic, and Inflammatory Markers in HIV-Infected Children on Long-term Suppressive Antiretroviral Therapy. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2017;6:e109-e115.

PubMed Abstract»

Nachman S, Zheng N, Acosta EP, et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and 48-week efficacy of oral raltegravir in HIV-1-infected children aged 2 through 18 years. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:413-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy in children and adolescents living with HIV. June 27, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Appendix A: Pediatric Antiretroviral Drug Information: Overview.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Management of Medication Toxicity or Intolerance: Overview. June 27, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. What to start: regimens recommended for initial therapy of antiretroviral-naive children. June 27, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. When to initiate therapy in antiretroviral-naive children. June 27, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to people with HIV: antiretroviral management of newborns with perinatal HIV exposure or HIV infection. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Patel K, Van Dyke RB, Mittleman MA, Colan SD, Oleske JM, Seage GR 3rd. The impact of HAART on cardiomyopathy among children and adolescents perinatally infected with HIV-1. AIDS. 2012;26:2027-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Persaud D, Patel K, Karalius B, et al. Influence of age at virologic control on peripheral blood human immunodeficiency virus reservoir size and serostatus in perinatally infected adolescents. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168:1138-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Purswani MU, Chernoff MC, Mitchell CD, et al. Chronic kidney disease associated with perinatal HIV infection in children and adolescents. Pediatr Nephrol. 2012;27:981-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Puthanakit T, Ananworanich J, Vonthanak S, et al. Cognitive function and neurodevelopmental outcomes in HIV-infected Children older than 1 year of age randomized to early versus deferred antiretroviral therapy: the PREDICT neurodevelopmental study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:501-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ruel TD, Kakuru A, Ikilezi G, et al. Virologic and immunologic outcomes of HIV-infected Ugandan children randomized to lopinavir/ritonavir or nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;65:535-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Schomaker M, Leroy V, Wolfs T, et al. Optimal timing of antiretroviral treatment initiation in HIV-positive children and adolescents: a multiregional analysis from Southern Africa, West Africa and Europe. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46:453-465.

PubMed Abstract»

Siberry GK, Jacobson DL, Kalkwarf HJ, et al. Lower Newborn Bone Mineral Content Associated With Maternal Use of Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate During Pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:996-1003.

PubMed Abstract»

Violari A, Cotton MF, Gibb DM, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV-infected infants. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2233-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Violari A, Lindsey JC, Hughes MD, et al. Nevirapine versus ritonavir-boosted lopinavir for HIV-infected children. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2380-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Yin DE, Warshaw MG, Miller WC, et al. Using CD4 percentage and age to optimize pediatric antiretroviral therapy initiation. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1104-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Immunizations for Children Living with HIV

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Catch-up immunization schedule for persons aged 4 months–18 years who start late or who are more than 1 month behind, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule by Medical Indication, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for Ages 18 Years or Younger, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Havers FP, Moro PL, Hunter P, Hariri S, Bernstein H. Use of Tetanus Toxoid, Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid, and Acellular Pertussis Vaccines: Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices - United States, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:77-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Marin M, Güris D, Chaves SS, Schmid S, Seward JF. Prevention of varicella: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2007;56:1-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;58:e44-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Strikas RA. Advisory committee on immunization practices recommended immunization schedules for persons aged 0 through 18 years--United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:93-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 1. HIV in Infants and Children

Opportunistic Infections in Children

Madhi SA, Cutland C, Ismail K, O'Reilly C, Mancha A, Klugman KP. Ineffectiveness of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis and the importance of bacterial and viral coinfections in African children with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:1120-6.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Children with and Exposed to HIV. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in children with and exposed to HIV. July 3, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for Ages 18 Years or Younger, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 33:1-143. Published May 2022.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Coovadia A, Abrams EJ, Stehlau R, et al. Reuse of nevirapine in exposed HIV-infected children after protease inhibitor-based viral suppression: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010;304:1082-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Gaur AH, Freimanis-Hance L, Dominguez K, et al. Knowledge and practice of prechewing/prewarming food by HIV-infected women. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e1206-11.

PubMed Abstract»

Gutierrez M, Ludwig DA, Khan SS, et al. Has highly active antiretroviral therapy increased the time to seroreversion in HIV exposed but uninfected children? Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1255-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Harrison L, Melvin A, Fiscus S, et al. HIV-1 Drug Resistance and Second-Line Treatment in Children Randomized to Switch at Low Versus Higher RNA Thresholds. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:42-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Healy SA, Gupta S, Melvin AJ. HIV/HBV coinfection in children and antiviral therapy. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2013;11:251-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Hirsch M, Steigbigel R, Staszewski S, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of indinavir, zidovudine, and lamivudine in adults with advanced human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and prior antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:659-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Hirsch MS, Steigbigel RT, Staszewski S, et al. Long-term efficacy, safety, and tolerability of indinavir-based therapy in protease inhibitor-naive adults with advanced HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:1119-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Jacobson DL, Williams P, Tassiopoulos K, Melvin A, Hazra R, Farley J. Clinical management and follow-up of hypercholesterolemia among perinatally HIV-infected children enrolled in the PACTG 219C study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;57:413-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Kuhn L, Schramm DB, Shiau S, et al. Young age at start of antiretroviral therapy and negative HIV antibody results in HIV-infected children when suppressed. AIDS. 2015;29:1053-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Melvin AJ, Lennon S, Mohan KM, Purnell JQ. Metabolic abnormalities in HIV type 1-infected children treated and not treated with protease inhibitors. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2001;17:1117-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Melvin AJ, Mohan KM. Response to immunization with measles, tetanus, and Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccines in children who have human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and are treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatrics. 2003;111:e641-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Melvin AJ, Montepiedra G, Aaron L, et al. Safety and Efficacy of Atorvastatin in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected Children, Adolescents and Young Adults With Hyperlipidemia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2017;36:53-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Nielsen-Saines K, Watts DH, Veloso VG, et al. Three postpartum antiretroviral regimens to prevent intrapartum HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:2368-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Palumbo P, Lindsey JC, Hughes MD, et al. Antiretroviral treatment for children with peripartum nevirapine exposure. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:1510-20.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Management of infants born to people with HIV: antiretroviral management of newborns with perinatal HIV exposure or HIV infection. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Maternal HIV testing and identification of perinatal HIV exposure January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Payne H, Mkhize N, Otwombe K, et al. Reactivity of routine HIV antibody tests in children who initiated antiretroviral therapy in early infancy as part of the Children with HIV Early Antiretroviral Therapy (CHER) trial: a retrospective analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:803-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Schieffelin JS, Williams PL, Djokic D, et al. Central Nervous System Vasculopathy in HIV-Infected Children Enrolled in the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 219/219C Study. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2013;2:50-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Siberry GK, Jacobson DL, Kalkwarf HJ, et al. Lower Newborn Bone Mineral Content Associated With Maternal Use of Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate During Pregnancy. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:996-1003.

PubMed Abstract»

Siberry GK, Warshaw MG, Williams PL, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of quadrivalent meningococcal conjugate vaccine in 2- to 10-year-old human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:47-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Siberry GK. Preventing and managing HIV infection in infants, children, and adolescents in the United States. Pediatr Rev. 2014;35:268-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Syphilis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Zetola NM, Engelman J, Jensen TP, Klausner JD. Syphilis in the United States: an update for clinicians with an emphasis on HIV coinfection. Mayo Clinic Proc. 2007;82:1091-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Introduction

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV Infection among adolescents and young adults in the United States and 6 dependent areas, 2010–2014. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2016;21(No. 3):1-58. Published June 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV Infection Among Adolescents and Young Adults in the United States and 6 Dependent Areas, 2012–2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 2019;24(No. 5): 1-47. Published October 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 33:1-143. Published May 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Dowshen N, D'Angelo L. Health care transition for youth living with HIV/AIDS. Pediatrics. 2011;128:762-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Gutman LT, St Claire KK, Weedy C, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission by child sexual abuse. Am J Dis Child. 1991;145:137-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Kadede K, Ruel T, Kabami J, et al. Increased adolescent HIV testing with a hybrid mobile strategy in Uganda and Kenya. AIDS. 2016;30:2121-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Kapogiannis BG, Koenig LJ, Xu J, et al. The HIV Continuum of Care for Adolescents and Young Adults Attending 13 Urban US HIV Care Centers of the NICHD-ATN-CDC-HRSA SMILE Collaborative. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2020;84:92-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Lindegren ML, Hanson IC, Hammett TA, Beil J, Fleming PL, Ward JW. Sexual abuse of children: intersection with the HIV epidemic. Pediatrics. 1998;102:E46.

PubMed Abstract»

MacPherson P, Munthali C, Ferguson J, et al. Service delivery interventions to improve adolescents' linkage, retention and adherence to antiretroviral therapy and HIV care. Trop Med Int Health. 2015;20:1015-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Medical Home Initiatives for Children With Special Needs Project Advisory Committee. American Academy of Pediatrics. The medical home. Pediatrics. 2002;110:184-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller RL, Chiaramonte D, Strzyzykowski T, Sharma D, Anderson-Carpenter K, Fortenberry JD. Improving Timely Linkage to Care among Newly Diagnosed HIV-Infected Youth: Results of SMILE. J Urban Health. 2019;96:845-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim S, Taylor A, Lampe MA, et al. A framework for elimination of perinatal transmission of HIV in the United States. Pediatrics. 2012;130:738-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in special patient populations: adolescents and young adults with HIV. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Petsis D, Min J, Huang YV, Akers AY, Wood S. HIV Testing Among Adolescents With Acute Sexually Transmitted Infections. Pediatrics. 2020;145:e20192265.

PubMed Abstract»

Shubber Z, Mills EJ, Nachega JB, et al. Patient-Reported Barriers to Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med. 2016;13:e1002183.

PubMed Abstract»

Tebb KP, Pica G, Peake K, Diaz A, Brindis CD. Adolescent and Health Professional Perspectives on the Medical Home: Improving Health Care Access and Utilization Under the Affordable Care Act: Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies and Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco; July 2016.

Health Policy Brief»

WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee. Annex H. Sexual Maturity Rating (Tanner Stage) in Adolescents. Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV Infection in Infants and Children: Towards Universal Access: Recommendations for a Public Health Approach: 2010 Revision.

WHO»

Zanoni BC, Mayer KH. The adolescent and young adult HIV cascade of care in the United States: exaggerated health disparities. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2014;28:128-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Epidemiology of HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV Infection Among Adolescents and Young Adults in the United States and 6 Dependent Areas, 2011–2016. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report 2018;23(No. 3): 1-45. Published May 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015; vol. 27:1-114. Published November 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 33:1-143. Published May 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Committee On Pediatric AIDS. Transitioning HIV-infected youth into adult health care. Pediatrics. 2013 Jul;132:192-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Testing, Linkage to Care, and Retention in Care

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Committee On Pediatric AIDS. Transitioning HIV-infected youth into adult health care. Pediatrics. 2013 Jul;132:192-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Inungu J, Lewis A, Mustafa Y, Wood J, O'Brien S, Verdun D. HIV Testing among Adolescents and Youth in the United States: Update from the 2009 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Open AIDS J. 2011;5:80-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Kann L, Kinchen S, Shanklin SL, et al. Youth risk behavior surveillance--United States, 2013. MMWR Suppl. 2014;63:1-168.

PubMed Abstract»

Kann L, McManus T, Harris WA, et al. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance - United States, 2017. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2018;67:1-114.

PubMed Abstract»

Lamb MR, Fayorsey R, Nuwagaba-Biribonwoha H, et al. High attrition before and after ART initiation among youth (15-24 years of age) enrolled in HIV care. AIDS. 2014;28:559-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller RL, Boyer CB, Chiaramonte D, et al. Evaluating Testing Strategies for Identifying Youths With HIV Infection and Linking Youths to Biomedical and Other Prevention Services. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171:532-537.

PubMed Abstract»

Petsis D, Min J, Huang YV, Akers AY, Wood S. HIV Testing Among Adolescents With Acute Sexually Transmitted Infections. Pediatrics. 2020;145:e20192265.

PubMed Abstract»

Philbin MM, Tanner AE, Duval A, Ellen J, Kapogiannis B, Fortenberry JD. Linking HIV-positive adolescents to care in 15 different clinics across the United States: creating solutions to address structural barriers for linkage to care. AIDS Care. 2014;26:12-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Philbin MM, Tanner AE, DuVal A, et al. Factors affecting linkage to care and engagement in care for newly diagnosed HIV-positive adolescents within fifteen adolescent medicine clinics in the United States. AIDS Behav. 2014;18:1501-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Stein R, Song W, Marano M, Patel H, Rao S, Morris E. HIV Testing, Linkage to HIV Medical Care, and Interviews for Partner Services Among Youths - 61 Health Department Jurisdictions, United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:629-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Szucs LE, Lowry R, Fasula AM, et al. Condom and Contraceptive Use Among Sexually Active High School Students - Youth Risk Behavior Survey, United States, 2019. MMWR Suppl. 2020;69:11-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Turner SD, Anderson K, Slater M, Quigley L, Dyck M, Guiang CB. Rapid point-of-care HIV testing in youth: a systematic review. J Adolesc Health. 2013;53:683-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Van Handel M, Kann L, Olsen EO, Dietz P. HIV Testing Among US High School Students and Young Adults. Pediatrics. 2016;137:e20152700.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Clinical and Laboratory Monitoring

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of Children Living with HIV. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Specific considerations in antiretroviral therapy use in adolescents with HIV. April 11, 2023

HIV.gov»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Antiretroviral Therapy for Adolescents with HIV

Chandwani S, Koenig LJ, Sill AM, Abramowitz S, Conner LC, D'Angelo L. Predictors of antiretroviral medication adherence among a diverse cohort of adolescents with HIV. J Adolesc Health. 2012;51:242-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Delaugerre C, Warszawski J, Chaix ML, et al. Prevalence and risk factors associated with antiretroviral resistance in HIV-1-infected children. J Med Virol. 2007;79:1261-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Kahana SY, Fernandez MI, Wilson PA, et al. Rates and correlates of antiretroviral therapy use and virologic suppression among perinatally and behaviorally HIV-infected youth linked to care in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:169-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in special patient populations: adolescents and young adults with HIV. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: plasma HIV-1 RNA (viral load) and CD4 count monitoring. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Antiretroviral therapy for people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Preconception counseling and care for persons of childbearing age with HIV: overview. December 30, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Tassiopoulos K, Moscicki AB, Mellins C, et al. Sexual risk behavior among youth with perinatal HIV infection in the United States: predictors and implications for intervention development. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:283-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Adherence with Antiretroviral Therapy

Amankwaa I, Boateng D, Quansah DY, Akuoko CP, Evans C. Effectiveness of short message services and voice call interventions for antiretroviral therapy adherence and other outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0204091.

PubMed Abstract»

Belzer ME, Kolmodin MacDonell K, Clark LF, et al. Acceptability and Feasibility of a Cell Phone Support Intervention for Youth Living with HIV with Nonadherence to Antiretroviral Therapy. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:338-45.

PubMed Abstract»

BREATHER (PENTA 16) Trial Group. Weekends-off efavirenz-based antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected children, adolescents, and young adults (BREATHER): a randomised, open-label, non-inferiority, phase 2/3 trial. Lancet HIV. 2016;3:e421-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Garofalo R, Kuhns LM, Hotton A, Johnson A, Muldoon A, Rice D. A Randomized Controlled Trial of Personalized Text Message Reminders to Promote Medication Adherence Among HIV-Positive Adolescents and Young Adults. AIDS Behav. 2016;20:1049-59.

PubMed Abstract»

MacDonell K, Naar-King S, Huszti H, Belzer M. Barriers to medication adherence in behaviorally and perinatally infected youth living with HIV. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:86-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in special patient populations: adolescents and young adults with HIV. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Rudy BJ, Murphy DA, Harris DR, Muenz L, Ellen J. Patient-related risks for nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected youth in the United States: a study of prevalence and interactions. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2009;23:185-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryscavage P, Anderson EJ, Sutton SH, Reddy S, Taiwo B. Clinical outcomes of adolescents and young adults in adult HIV care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:193-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Shah R, Watson J, Free C. A systematic review and meta-analysis in the effectiveness of mobile phone interventions used to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV infection. BMC Public Health. 2019;19:915.

PubMed Abstract»

Shubber Z, Mills EJ, Nachega JB, et al. Patient-Reported Barriers to Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med. 2016;13:e1002183.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) for Adolescents

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Doll M, Fortenberry JD, Roseland D, McAuliff K, Wilson CM, Boyer CB. Linking HIV-Negative Youth to Prevention Services in 12 U.S. Cities: Barriers and Facilitators to Implementing the HIV Prevention Continuum. J Adolesc Health. 2018;62:424-433.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Hosek S, Celum C, Wilson CM, Kapogiannis B, Delany-Moretlwe S, Bekker LG. Preventing HIV among adolescents with oral PrEP: observations and challenges in the United States and South Africa. J Int AIDS Soc. 2016;19:21107.

PubMed Abstract»

Hosek SG, Landovitz RJ, Kapogiannis B, et al. Safety and Feasibility of Antiretroviral Preexposure Prophylaxis for Adolescent Men Who Have Sex With Men Aged 15 to 17 Years in the United States. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171:1063-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Hosek SG, Rudy B, Landovitz R, et al. An HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Demonstration Project and Safety Study for Young MSM. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;74:21-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hosek SG, Siberry G, Bell M, et al. The acceptability and feasibility of an HIV preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) trial with young men who have sex with men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:447-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Mullins TL, Zimet G, Lally M, Kahn JA. Adolescent Human Immunodeficiency Virus Care Providers' Attitudes Toward the Use of Oral Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in Youth. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2016;30:339-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Tanner MR, Miele P, Carter W, et al. Preexposure Prophylaxis for Prevention of HIV Acquisition Among Adolescents: Clinical Considerations, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-12.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Immunizations for Adolescents with HIV

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Catch-up immunization schedule for persons aged 4 months–18 years who start late or who are more than 1 month behind, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Meeting recomendations. August 2023.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule by Medical Indication, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for Ages 18 Years or Younger, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States, 2018.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Children and Adolescents Aged 18 Years or Younger, United States, 2018

ACIP»

PubMed Abstract»

Immunization Action Coalition—Ask the Experts. Diseases & Vaccines. Meningococcal B disease: for people with risk factors.

immunization Action Coalition.»

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

Marshall HS, Richmond PC, Beeslaar J, et al. Meningococcal serogroup B-specific responses after vaccination with bivalent rLP2086: 4 year follow-up of a randomised, single-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17:58-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Mbaeyi SA, Bozio CH, Duffy J, et al. Meningococcal Vaccination: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Ostergaard L, Vesikari T, Absalon J, et al. A Bivalent Meningococcal B Vaccine in Adolescents and Young Adults. N Engl J Med. 2017;377:2349-2362.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Patton ME, Stephens D, Moore K, MacNeil JR. Updated Recommendations for Use of MenB-FHbp Serogroup B Meningococcal Vaccine - Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:509-513.

PubMed Abstract»

Robinson CL, Romero JR, Kempe A, Pellegrini C. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for Children and Adolescents Aged 18 Years or Younger - United States, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:134-135.

PubMed Abstract»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Serruto D, Bottomley MJ, Ram S, Giuliani MM, Rappuoli R. The new multicomponent vaccine against meningococcal serogroup B, 4CMenB: immunological, functional and structural characterization of the antigens. Vaccine. 2012;30 Suppl 2:B87-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Adolescent Sexuality, Gender, and Reproductive Health

Baral SD, Poteat T, Strömdahl S, Wirtz AL, Guadamuz TE, Beyrer C. Worldwide burden of HIV in transgender women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:214-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Camacho-Gonzalez AF, Chernoff MC, Williams PL, et al. Sexually Transmitted Infections in Youth With Controlled and Uncontrolled Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2017;6:e22-e29.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Report, 2015; vol. 27:1-114. Published November 2016.

CDC»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Cowan FM, Busza J, Bolton-Moore C, Kelley K, Fairlie L. Providing comprehensive health services for young key populations: needs, barriers and gaps. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18:19833.

PubMed Abstract»

Herbst JH, Jacobs ED, Finlayson TJ, McKleroy VS, Neumann MS, Crepaz N. Estimating HIV prevalence and risk behaviors of transgender persons in the United States: a systematic review. AIDS Behav. 2008;12:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Mellins CA, Tassiopoulos K, Malee K, et al. Behavioral health risks in perinatally HIV-exposed youth: co-occurrence of sexual and drug use behavior, mental health problems, and nonadherence to antiretroviral treatment. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2011;25:413-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in special patient populations: adolescents and young adults with HIV. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Preconception counseling and care for persons of childbearing age with HIV: overview. December 30, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Setse RW, Siberry GK, Gravitt PE, et al. Correlates of sexual activity and sexually transmitted infections among human immunodeficiency virus-infected youth in the LEGACY cohort, United States, 2006. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:967-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Stephens SC, Bernstein KT, Philip SS. Male to female and female to male transgender persons have different sexual risk behaviors yet similar rates of STDs and HIV. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:683-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Tepper NK, Krashin JW, Curtis KM, Cox S, Whiteman MK. Update to CDC's U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2016: Revised Recommendations for the Use of Hormonal Contraception Among Women at High Risk for HIV Infection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:990-994.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilson PA, Kahana SY, Fernandez MI, et al. Sexual Risk Behavior Among Virologically Detectable Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Young Men Who Have Sex With Men. JAMA Pediatr. 2016;170:125-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. HIV infection: detection, counseling, and referral. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Special Considerations for Youth with Perinatal HIV

Alperen J, Brummel S, Tassiopoulos K, et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for substance use among perinatally human immunodeficiency virus-infected and perinatally exposed but uninfected youth. J Adolesc Health. 2014;54:341-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Disclosure of illness status to children and adolescents with HIV infection. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Pediatrics AIDS. Pediatrics. 1999;103:164-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Elkington KS, Bauermeister JA, Santamaria EK, Dolezal C, Mellins CA. Substance use and the development of sexual risk behaviors in youth perinatally exposed to HIV. J Pediatr Psychol. 2015;40:442-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Mellins CA, Elkington KS, Leu CS, et al. Prevalence and change in psychiatric disorders among perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-exposed youth. AIDS Care. 2012;24:953-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Mellins CA, Malee KM. Understanding the mental health of youth living with perinatal HIV infection: lessons learned and current challenges. J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16:18593.

PubMed Abstract»

Nozyce ML, Lee SS, Wiznia A, et al. A behavioral and cognitive profile of clinically stable HIV-infected children. Pediatrics. 2006;117:763-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Scharko AM. DSM psychiatric disorders in the context of pediatric HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care. 2006;18:441-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith R, Wilkins M. Perinatally acquired HIV infection: long-term neuropsychological consequences and challenges ahead. Child Neuropsychol. 2015;21:234-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Young-Wolff KC, Sarovar V, Sterling SA, et al. Adverse childhood experiences, mental health, substance use, and HIV-related outcomes among persons with HIV. AIDS Care. 2019;31:1241-1249.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 2. HIV in Adolescents and Young Adults

Transitioning to Adult Care

Andiman WA. Transition from pediatric to adult healthcare services for young adults with chronic illnesses: the special case of human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Pediatr. 2011;159:714-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Blum RW, Garell D, Hodgman CH, et al. Transition from child-centered to adult health-care systems for adolescents with chronic conditions. A position paper of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. J Adolesc Health. 1993;14:570-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Committee On Pediatric AIDS. Transitioning HIV-infected youth into adult health care. Pediatrics. 2013 Jul;132:192-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Dowshen N, D'Angelo L. Health care transition for youth living with HIV/AIDS. Pediatrics. 2011;128:762-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Fish R, Judd A, Jungmann E, O'Leary C, Foster C. Mortality in perinatally HIV-infected young people in England following transition to adult care: an HIV Young Persons Network (HYPNet) audit. HIV Med. 2014;15:239-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Gilliam PP, Ellen JM, Leonard L, Kinsman S, Jevitt CM, Straub DM. Transition of adolescents with HIV to adult care: characteristics and current practices of the adolescent trials network for HIV/AIDS interventions. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2011;22:283-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Considerations for antiretroviral use in special patient populations: adolescents and young adults with HIV. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Reiss JG, Gibson RW, Walker LR. Health care transition: youth, family, and provider perspectives. Pediatrics. 2005;115:112-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Health Policy Brief»

Vijayan T, Benin AL, Wagner K, Romano S, Andiman WA. We never thought this would happen: transitioning care of adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection from pediatrics to internal medicine. AIDS Care. 2009;21:1222-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

Adolescent Trials Network (ATN) Collaborators/Network Members. Transgender youth resources.

Adolescent Trials Network»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Catch-up immunization schedule for persons aged 4 months–18 years who start late or who are more than 1 month behind, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule by Medical Indication, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule for Ages 18 Years or Younger, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2020. HIV Surveillance Report, 2022; vol. 33:1-143. Published May 2022.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(No. 1):1-81. Published May 2021.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Haas DW, Arathoon E, Thompson MA, et al. Comparative studies of two-times-daily versus three-times-daily indinavir in combination with zidovudine and lamivudine. AIDS. 2000;14:1973-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Havens PL, Stephensen CB, Van Loan MD, et al. Vitamin D3 Supplementation Increases Spine Bone Mineral Density in Adolescents and Young Adults With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Being Treated With Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:220-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Hosek S, Henry-Reid L. PrEP and Adolescents: The Role of Providers in Ending the AIDS Epidemic. Pediatrics. 2020;145:e20191743

PubMed Abstract»

Lally MA, van den Berg JJ, Westfall AO, et al. HIV Continuum of Care for Youth in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;77:110-117.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Li Z, Purcell DW, Sansom SL, Hayes D, Hall HI. Vital Signs: HIV transmission along the continuum of care - United States, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:267-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Ma M, Malcolm L, Diaz-Albertini K, Klinoff VA. HIV Testing Characteristics Among Hispanic Adolescents. J Community Health. 2016;41:11-4.

PubMed Abstract»

MMWR»

PubMed Abstract»

Mbaeyi SA, Bozio CH, Duffy J, et al. Meningococcal Vaccination: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2020. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2020;69:1-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Miller L, Arakaki L, Ramautar A, et al. Elevated risk for invasive meningococcal disease among persons with HIV. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:30-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Mullins TLK, Idoine CR, Zimet GD, Kahn JA. Primary Care Physician Attitudes and Intentions Toward the Use of HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis in Adolescents in One Metropolitan Region. J Adolesc Health. 2019;64:581-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Nesheim S, Taylor A, Lampe MA, et al. A framework for elimination of perinatal transmission of HIV in the United States. Pediatrics. 2012;130:738-44.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: laboratory testing for initial assessment and monitoring of people with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Laboratory testing: plasma HIV-1 RNA (viral load) and CD4 count monitoring. September 21, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Limitations to treatment safety and efficacy: adherence to the continuum of care. October 17, 2017.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Antiretroviral therapy for people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Rubin LG, Levin MJ, Ljungman P, et al. 2013 IDSA clinical practice guideline for vaccination of the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:309-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Ryscavage P, Anderson EJ, Sutton SH, Reddy S, Taiwo B. Clinical outcomes of adolescents and young adults in adult HIV care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:193-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Straub DM, Mullins TLK. Nonoccupational Postexposure Prophylaxis and Preexposure Prophylaxis for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Prevention in Adolescents and Young Adults. Adv Pediatr. 2019;66:245-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor AW, Nesheim SR, Zhang X, et al. Estimated Perinatal HIV Infection Among Infants Born in the United States, 2002-2013. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171:435-442.

PubMed Abstract»

Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:423-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Vreeman RC, McCoy BM, Lee S. Mental health challenges among adolescents living with HIV. J Int AIDS Soc. 2017;20:21497.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Syphilis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Background

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2013. HIV Surveillance Report, 2013; vol. 25:1-82. Published February 2015.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

UNAIDS/AIDSinfo. HIV and AIDS estimates: global factsheets 2017.

UN AIDS/AIDSinfo»

United States Census Bureau. Quick facts—United States.

United States Census Bureau»

Wolde-Yohannes S. Persisting failure to protect populations at risk from HIV transmission: African American women in the United States (US). J Public Health Policy. 2012;33:325-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

HIV Epidemiology in Women

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI. Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States. Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27:238-243.

PubMed Abstract»

US Census Bureau

US Census Bureau»

Wolde-Yohannes S. Persisting failure to protect populations at risk from HIV transmission: African American women in the United States (US). J Public Health Policy. 2012;33:325-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Antiretroviral Therapy in Women

Baylor MS, Johann-Liang R. Hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine use. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr. 2004;35:538-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, Moser C, Currier JS, et al. Changes in Bone Mineral Density After Initiation of Antiretroviral Treatment With Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate/Emtricitabine Plus Atazanavir/Ritonavir, Darunavir/Ritonavir, or Raltegravir. J Infect Dis. 2015;212:1241-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Collazos J, Asensi V, Cartón JA. Sex differences in the clinical, immunological and virological parameters of HIV-infected patients treated with HAART. AIDS. 2007;21:835-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Currier J, Averitt Bridge D, Hagins D, et al. Sex-based outcomes of darunavir-ritonavir therapy: a single-group trial. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:349-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Antiretroviral Guidelines Panels. HIV/AIDS News: Recommendations Regarding the Use of Dolutegravir in Adults and Adolescents with HIV who are Pregnant or of Child-Bearing Potential. May 30, 2018

AIDSinfo»

Fardet L, Mary-Krause M, Heard I, Partisani M, Costagliola D. Influence of gender and HIV transmission group on initial highly active antiretroviral therapy prescription and treatment response. HIV Med. 2006;7:520-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Calmy A, Mofenson L. Safety of efavirenz in the first trimester of pregnancy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2011; 25: 2301-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Mofenson L, Shubber Z, et al. Safety of efavirenz in the first trimester of pregnancy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2014;28 Suppl 2:S123-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Gandhi M, Aweeka F, Greenblatt RM, Blaschke TF. Sex differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2004;44:499-523.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant PM, Kitch D, McComsey GA, et al. Low baseline CD4+ count is associated with greater bone mineral density loss after antiretroviral therapy initiation. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1483-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kerchberger AM, Sheth AN, Angert CD, et al. Weight Gain Associated With Integrase Stand Transfer Inhibitor Use in Women. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:593-600.

PubMed Abstract»

Lake JE, Wu K, Bares SH, et al. Risk Factors for Weight Gain Following Switch to Integrase Inhibitor-Based Antiretroviral Therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:e471-e477.

PubMed Abstract»

Ofotokun I, Chuck SK, Hitti JE. Antiretroviral pharmacokinetic profile: a review of sex differences. Gend Med. 2007;4:106-19.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Antiretroviral therapy for people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 6. What to start: initial antiretroviral regimens during pregnancy for people who are antiretroviral-naive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 7. Situation-specific recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant people and nonpregnant people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: people with HIV who are taking antiretroviral therapy when they become pregnant. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Appendix C: Antiretroviral counseling guide for health care providers. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: teratogenicity. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant Women with HIV Infection and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant women living with HIV who are currently receiving antiretroviral therapy. February 10, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Rosin C, Elzi L, Thurnheer C, et al. Gender inequalities in the response to combination antiretroviral therapy over time: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. HIV Med. 2015;16:319-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Sax PE, Erlandson KM, Lake JE, et al. Weight Gain Following Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy: Risk Factors in Randomized Comparative Clinical Trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:1379-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Sharma A, Shi Q, Hoover DR, et al. Increased Fracture Incidence in Middle-Aged HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Women: Updated Results From the Women's Interagency HIV Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:54-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Stek A, Best BM, Wang J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of Once Versus Twice Daily Darunavir in Pregnant HIV-Infected Women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:33-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Venter WDF, Sokhela S, Simmons B, et al. Dolutegravir with emtricitabine and tenofovir alafenamide or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate versus efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for initial treatment of HIV-1 infection (ADVANCE): week 96 results from a randomised, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2020;7:e666-e676.

PubMed Abstract»

Venuto CS, Mollan K, Ma Q, et al. Sex differences in atazanavir pharmacokinetics and associations with time to clinical events: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study A5202. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:3300-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Williams PL, Yildirim C, Chadwick EG, et al. Association of maternal antiretroviral use with microcephaly in children who are HIV-exposed but uninfected (SMARTT): a prospective cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2020;7:e49-e58.

PubMed Abstract»

Yin M, Dobkin J, Brudney K, et al. Bone mass and mineral metabolism in HIV+ postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16:1345-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes LB, Diseko M, et al. Update on neural tube defects with antiretroviral exposure in the Tsepamo study, Botswana. Abstract PEBLB14. Presented at: IAS; 2021. Virtual Conference

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Makhema J, Shapiro RL. Neural-Tube Defects with Dolutegravir Treatment from the Time of Conception. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:979-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Contraception in Women with HIV

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Bazzi AR, Leech AA, Biancarelli DL, Sullivan M, Drainoni ML. Experiences Using Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for Safer Conception Among HIV Serodiscordant Heterosexual Couples in the United States. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2017;31:348-355.

PubMed Abstract»

Blish CA, Baeten JM. Hormonal contraception and HIV-1 transmission. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2011;65:302-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update to CDC's U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2010: revised recommendations for the use of hormonal contraception among women at high risk for HIV infection or infected with HIV. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61:449-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohan D, Weber S, Goldschmidt R. Safer conception options for HIV-serodiscordant couples. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011;206:e21.

PubMed Abstract»

Colvin CJ, Harrison A. Broadening the debate over HIV and hormonal contraception. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:135-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV. BMJ. 1992;304:809-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Curtis KM, Tepper NK, Jatlaoui TC, et al. U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016;65:1-103.

MMWR»

Delvaux T, Buvé A. Hormonal contraception and HIV acquisition - what is the evidence? What are the policy and operational implications? Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 2013;18:15-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Heffron R, Donnell D, Rees H, et al. Use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of HIV-1 transmission: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12:19-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Heffron R, Mugo N, Ngure K, et al. Hormonal contraceptive use and risk of HIV-1 disease progression. AIDS. 2013;27:261-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Heffron R, Pintye J, Matthews LT, Weber S, Mugo N. PrEP as Peri-conception HIV Prevention for Women and Men. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2016;13:131-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Heikinheimo O, Lehtovirta P, Aho I, Ristola M, Paavonen J. The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in human immunodeficiency virus–infected women: a 5-year follow-up study. AJOG. 2011;204(2):126.e1-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Lampe MA, Smith DK, Anderson GJE, Edwards AE, Nesheim SR. Achieving safe conception in HIV-discordant couples: the potential role of oral preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:488.e1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Leticee N, Viard JP, Yamgnane A, Karmochkine M, Benachi A. Contraceptive failure of etonogestrel implant in patients treated with antiretrovirals including efavirenz. Contraception. 2012;85:425-7.

PubMed Abstract»

McCoy SI, Zheng W, Montgomery ET, et al. Oral and injectable contraception use and risk of HIV acquisition among women in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS. 2013;27:1001-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugo NR, Hong T, Celum C, et al. Pregnancy incidence and outcomes among women receiving preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312:362-71.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24c. Drug interactions between nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions: drug interactions between HIV-1 gp120-directed attachment inhibitors and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents) June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24e. Drug interactions between the CCR5 antagonist maraviroc and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 25b. Drug interactions between integrase inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors or protease inhibitors. June 3, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Preconception counseling and care for persons of childbearing age with HIV. Reproductive options when one or both partners have HIV. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Preconception counseling and care for persons of childbearing age with HIV: overview. December 30, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Phillips SJ, Curtis KM, Polis CB. Effect of hormonal contraceptive methods on HIV disease progression: a systematic review. AIDS. 2013;27:787-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Polis CB, Curtis KM. Use of hormonal contraceptives and HIV acquisition in women: a systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:797-808.

PubMed Abstract»

Polis CB, Phillips SJ, Curtis KM. Hormonal contraceptive use and female-to-male HIV transmission: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. AIDS. 2013;27:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Ralph LJ, McCoy SI, Shiu K, Padian NS. Hormonal contraceptive use and women's risk of HIV acquisition: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:181-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Seidman DL, Weber S, Timoney MT, et al. Use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis during the preconception, antepartum and postpartum periods at two United States medical centers. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;215:632.e1-632.e7.

PubMed Abstract»

Stringer EM, Giganti M, Carter RJ, El-Sadr W, Abrams EJ, Stringer JS. Hormonal contraception and HIV disease progression: a multicountry cohort analysis of the MTCT-Plus Initiative. AIDS. 2009;23 Suppl 1:S69-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Stringer EM, Kaseba C, Levy J, et al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive device vs hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197:144.e1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Stringer EM, Levy J, Sinkala M, et al. HIV disease progression by hormonal contraceptive method: secondary analysis of a randomized trial. AIDS. 2009;23:1377-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Cox S, Whiteman MK. Update to U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2016: Updated Recommendations for the Use of Contraception Among Women at High Risk for HIV Infection. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:405-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Nanda K, Jamieson DJ. Safety of intrauterine devices among women with HIV: a systematic review. Contraception. 2016;94:713-724.

PubMed Abstract»

Tittle V, Bull L, Boffito M, Nwokolo N. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug interactions between antiretrovirals and oral contraceptives. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2015;54:23-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Tseng A, Hills-Nieminen C. Drug interactions between antiretrovirals and hormonal contraceptives. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2013;9:559-72.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Vernazza PL, Graf I, Sonnenberg-Schwan U, Geit M, Meurer A.Preexposure prophylaxis and timed intercourse for HIV-discordant couples willing to conceive a child. AIDS. 2011;25:2005-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilkinson D, Ramjee G, Tholandi M, Rutherford G. Nonoxynol-9 for preventing vaginal acquisition of HIV infection by women from men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(4):CD003936.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Contraception Considerations for Women at Risk for HIV

Achilles SL, Creinin MD, Stoner KA, Chen BA, Meyn L, Hillier SL. Changes in genital tract immune cell populations after initiation of intrauterine contraception. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014;211:489.e1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Byrne EH, Anahtar MN, Cohen KE, et al. Association between injectable progestin-only contraceptives and HIV acquisition and HIV target cell frequency in the female genital tract in South African women: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:441-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Colvin CJ, Harrison A. Broadening the debate over HIV and hormonal contraception. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:135-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Curtis KM, Tepper NK, Jatlaoui TC, et al. U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016;65:1-103.

MMWR»

Delvaux T, Buvé A. Hormonal contraception and HIV acquisition - what is the evidence? What are the policy and operational implications? Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 2013;18:15-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Evidence for Contraceptive Options and HIV Outcomes (ECHO) Trial Consortium. HIV incidence among women using intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, a copper intrauterine device, or a levonorgestrel implant for contraception: a randomised, multicentre, open-label trial. Lancet. 2019;394:303-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Friend DR, Clark JT, Kiser PF, Clark MR. Multipurpose prevention technologies: products in development. Antiviral Res. 2013;100 Suppl:S39-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Heffron R, Donnell D, Rees H, et al. Use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of HIV-1 transmission: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12:19-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Heffron R, Mugo N, Were E, et al. Preexposure prophylaxis is efficacious for HIV-1 prevention among women using depot medroxyprogesterone acetate for contraception. AIDS. 2014;28:2771-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Kleinschmidt I, Rees H, Delany S, et al. Injectable progestin contraceptive use and risk of HIV infection in a South African family planning cohort. Contraception. 2007;75:461-7.

PubMed Abstract»

McCoy SI, Zheng W, Montgomery ET, et al. Oral and injectable contraception use and risk of HIV acquisition among women in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS. 2013;27:1001-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Morrison CS, Chen PL, Kwok C, et al. Hormonal contraception and the risk of HIV acquisition: an individual participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2015;12:e1001778.

PubMed Abstract»

Morrison CS, Richardson BA, Mmiro F, et al. Hormonal contraception and the risk of HIV acquisition. AIDS. 2007;21:85-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Murnane PM, Heffron R, Ronald A, et al. Pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV-1 prevention does not diminish the pregnancy prevention effectiveness of hormonal contraception. AIDS. 2014;28:1825-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Noguchi LM, Richardson BA, Baeten JM, et al. Risk of HIV-1 acquisition among women who use diff erent types of injectable progestin contraception in South Africa: a prospective cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2015;2:e279-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Polis CB, Curtis KM, Hannaford PC, et al. An updated systematic review of epidemiological evidence on hormonal contraceptive methods and HIV acquisition in women. AIDS. 2016;30:2665-2683.

PubMed Abstract»

Polis CB, Curtis KM. Use of hormonal contraceptives and HIV acquisition in women: a systematic review of the epidemiological evidence. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:797-808.

PubMed Abstract»

Ralph LJ, McCoy SI, Shiu K, Padian NS. Hormonal contraceptive use and women's risk of HIV acquisition: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:181-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Ramjee G, McCormack S. The role of progestins in HIV acquisition in young women. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16:389-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Nanda K, Jamieson DJ. Safety of intrauterine devices among women with HIV: a systematic review. Contraception. 2016;94:713-724.

PubMed Abstract»

Villegas G, Calenda G, Ugaonkar S, et al. A Novel Microbicide/Contraceptive Intravaginal Ring Protects Macaque Genital Mucosa against SHIV-RT Infection Ex Vivo. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0159332.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilkinson D, Ramjee G, Tholandi M, Rutherford G. Nonoxynol-9 for preventing vaginal acquisition of HIV infection by women from men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(4):CD003936.

PubMed Abstract»

World Health Organization. Contraceptive eligibility for women at high risk of HIV: guidance statement: recommendations on contraceptive methods used by women at high risk of HIV. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2019.

WHO»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Serodifferent Couples Desiring Pregnancy

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohan D, Weber S, Goldschmidt R. Safer conception options for HIV-serodiscordant couples. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011;206:e21.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Del Romero J, Baza MB, Río I, et al. Natural conception in HIV-serodiscordant couples with the infected partner in suppressive antiretroviral therapy: A prospective cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95:e4398.

PubMed Abstract»

Heffron R, Pintye J, Matthews LT, Weber S, Mugo N. PrEP as Peri-conception HIV Prevention for Women and Men. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2016;13:131-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Mugo NR, Hong T, Celum C, et al. Pregnancy incidence and outcomes among women receiving preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312:362-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Preconception counseling and care for persons of childbearing age with HIV. Reproductive options when one or both partners have HIV. January 31, 2023.

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Vernazza PL, Graf I, Sonnenberg-Schwan U, Geit M, Meurer A.Preexposure prophylaxis and timed intercourse for HIV-discordant couples willing to conceive a child. AIDS. 2011;25:2005-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Vaginitis in Women with HIV

Bohbot JM, Vicaut E, Fagnen D, Brauman M. Treatment of bacterial vaginosis: a multicenter, double-blind, double-dummy, randomised phase III study comparing secnidazole and metronidazole. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2010;2010.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen CR, Lingappa JR, Baeten JM, et al. Bacterial vaginosis associated with increased risk of female-to-male HIV-1 transmission: a prospective cohort analysis among African couples. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001251.

PubMed Abstract»

Duerr A, Heilig CM, Meikle SF, et al. Incident and persistent vulvovaginal candidiasis among human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: Risk factors and severity. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;101:548-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Hillier SL, Nyirjesy P, Waldbaum AS, et al. Secnidazole Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;130:379-386.

PubMed Abstract»

Jamieson DJ, Duerr A, Klein RS, et al. Longitudinal analysis of bacterial vaginosis: findings from the HIV epidemiology research study. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;98;656-63.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Schwebke JR, Morgan FG Jr, Koltun W, Nyirjesy P. A phase-3, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effectiveness and safety of single oral doses of secnidazole 2 g for the treatment of women with bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2017;217:678.e1-678.e9.

PubMed Abstract»

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by vaginal itching, burning, irritation, odor or discharge: bacterial vaginosis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by vaginal itching, burning, irritation, odor or discharge: vulvovaginal candidiasis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by vaginal discharge: bacterial vaginosis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

CDC»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by vaginal discharge: Vulvovaginal candidiasis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

CDC»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Diseases characterized by vaginal discharge. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Gender-Based Violence and Women with HIV

Blashill AJ, Perry N, Safren SA. Mental health: a focus on stress, coping, and mental illness as it relates to treatment retention, adherence, and other health outcomes. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2011;8:215-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Gonzalez JS, Batchelder AW, Psaros C, Safren SA. Depression and HIV/AIDS treatment nonadherence: a review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:181-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Maman S, Campbell J, Sweat MD, Gielen AC. The intersections of HIV and violence: directions for future research and interventions. Soc Sci Med. 2000;50:459-78.

PubMed Abstract»

Nuttbrock L, Bockting W, Rosenblum A, et al. Gender Abuse and Incident HIV/STI Among Transgender Women in New York City: Buffering Effect of Involvement in a Transgender Community. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:1446-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Nuttbrock L, Bockting W, Rosenblum A, et al. Gender abuse, depressive symptoms, and HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among male-to-female transgender persons: a three-year prospective study. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:300-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Orza L, Bewley S, Chung C, et al. "Violence. Enough already": findings from a global participatory survey among women living with HIV. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18:20285.

PubMed Abstract»

Rees S, Silove D, Chey T, et al. Lifetime prevalence of gender-based violence in women and the relationship with mental disorders and psychosocial function. JAMA. 2011;306:513-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Schwartz RM, Weber KM, Schechter GE, et al. Psychosocial correlates of gender-based violence among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women in three US cities. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2014;28:260-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Were E, Curran K, Delany-Moretlwe S, et al. A prospective study of frequency and correlates of intimate partner violence among African heterosexual HIV serodiscordant couples. AIDS. 2011;25:2009-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Zunner B, Dworkin SL, Neylan TC, et al. HIV, violence and women: unmet mental health care needs. J Affect Disord. 2014;174:619-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 3. HIV in Women

Menopause in Women with HIV

Calvet GA, Grinsztejn BG, Quintana Mde S, et al. Predictors of early menopause in HIV-infected women: a prospective cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;212:765.e1-765.e13.

PubMed Abstract»

Cortés YI, Yin MT, Reame NK. Bone Density and Fractures in HIV-infected Postmenopausal Women: A Systematic Review. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2015;26:387-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Imai K, Sutton MY, Mdodo R, Del Rio C. HIV and Menopause: A Systematic Review of the Effects of HIV Infection on Age at Menopause and the Effects of Menopause on Response to Antiretroviral Therapy. Obstet Gynecol Int. 2013;2013:340309.

PubMed Abstract»

Kanapathipillai R, Hickey M, Giles M. Human immunodeficiency virus and menopause. Menopause. 2013;20:983-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaul R, Pettengell C, Sheth PM, et al. The genital tract immune milieu: an important determinant of HIV susceptibility and secondary transmission. J Reprod Immunol. 2008;77:32-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Melo KC, Melo MR, Ricci BV, Segurado AC. Correlates of human immunodeficiency virus cervicovaginal shedding among postmenopausal and fertile-aged women. Menopause. 2012;19:150-6.

PubMed Abstract»

North American Menopause Society. The 2012 hormone therapy position statement of: The North American Menopause Society. Menopause. 2012;19:257-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Patterson KB, Cohn SE, Uyanik J, Hughes M, Smurzynski M, Eron JJ. Treatment responses in antiretroviral treatment-naive premenopausal and postmenopausal HIV-1-infected women: an analysis from AIDS Clinical Trials Group Studies. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:473-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Ages 19 Years or Older, United States, 2023.

ACIP»

Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:399-410.

PubMed Abstract»

Baylor MS, Johann-Liang R. Hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine use. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr. 2004;35:538-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, Qaqish RB. Antiretroviral therapy and the prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis: a meta-analytic review. AIDS. 2006;20:2165-74.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Antiretroviral Therapy for the Prevention of HIV-1 Transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:830-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.

PubMed Abstract»

Curtis KM, Peipert JF. Long-Acting Reversible Contraception. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:461-468.

PubMed Abstract»

Delany-Moretlwe S, Hughes JP, Bock P, et al. Cabotegravir for the prevention of HIV-1 in women: results from HPTN 084, a phase 3, randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2022;399:1779–89.

PubMed Abstract»

Duvivier C, Kolta S, Assoumou L, et al. Greater decrease in bone mineral density with protease inhibitor regimens compared with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor regimens in HIV-1 infected naive patients. AIDS. 2009;23:817-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Calmy A, Mofenson L. Safety of efavirenz in the first trimester of pregnancy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2011; 25: 2301-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford N, Mofenson L, Shubber Z, et al. Safety of efavirenz in the first trimester of pregnancy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2014;28 Suppl 2:S123-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Gaur AH, Kizito H, Prasitsueubsai W, et al. Safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of a single-tablet regimen containing elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir alafenamide in treatment-naive, HIV-infected adolescents: a single-arm, open-label trial. Lancet HIV. 2016;3:e561-e568.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghanem KG, Moore RD, Rompalo AM, Erbelding EJ, Zenilman JM, Gebo KA. Antiretroviral therapy is associated with reduced serologic failure rates for syphilis among HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:258–65.

PubMed Abstract»

Gonzalez JS, Batchelder AW, Psaros C, Safren SA. Depression and HIV/AIDS treatment nonadherence: a review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:181-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Haddad LB, Feldacker C, Jamieson DJ, et al. Medical eligibility, contraceptive choice, and intrauterine device acceptance among HIV-infected women receiving antiretroviral therapy in Lilongwe, Malawi. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2014;126:213-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Antiretroviral therapy to prevent sexual transmission of HIV (treatment as prevention). December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24c. Drug interactions between nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24d. Drug interactions between integrase strand transfer inhibitors and other drugs. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24e. Drug interactions between the CCR5 antagonist maraviroc and other drugs (including antiretroviral agents). May 26, 2023.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 6. What to start: initial antiretroviral regimens during pregnancy for people who are antiretroviral-naive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy. Table 7. Situation-specific recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant people and nonpregnant people who are trying to conceive. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Antepartum Care. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: people with HIV who are taking antiretroviral therapy when they become pregnant. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Appendix C: Antiretroviral counseling guide for health care providers. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Preconception counseling and care for persons of childbearing age with HIV: overview. December 30, 2021.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: pregnant people with HIV who have never received antiretroviral drugs (antiretroviral naive). January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Panel on Treatment of HIV During Pregnancy and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs During Pregnancy and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs during pregnancy: teratogenicity. January 31, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Poonia B, Walter L, Dufour J, Harrison R, Marx PA, Veazey RS. Cyclic changes in the vaginal epithelium of normal rhesus macaques. J Endocrinol. 2006;190:829-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Santen RJ, Allred DC, Ardoin SP, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:s1-s66.

PubMed Abstract»

Stek A, Best BM, Wang J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of Once Versus Twice Daily Darunavir in Pregnant HIV-Infected Women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;70:33-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Stellbrink HJ, Orkin C, Arribas JR, et al. Comparison of changes in bone density and turnover with abacavir-lamivudine versus tenofovir-emtricitabine in HIV-infected adults: 48-week results from the ASSERT study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:963-72.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. Clinical providers' supplement. March 2018:1-59.

CDC»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Diseases characterized by vaginal itching, burning, irritation, odor or discharge: bacterial vaginosis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Zash R, Holmes L, Diseko M, et al. Neural-Tube Defects and Antiretroviral Treatment Regimens in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:827-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Holmes LB, Diseko M, et al. Update on neural tube defects with antiretroviral exposure in the Tsepamo study, Botswana. Abstract PEBLB14. Presented at: IAS; 2021. Virtual Conference

PubMed Abstract»

Zash R, Makhema J, Shapiro RL. Neural-Tube Defects with Dolutegravir Treatment from the Time of Conception. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:979-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Module 6 » Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Background

Althoff KN, McGinnis KA, Wyatt CM, et al. Comparison of risk and age at diagnosis of myocardial infarction, end-stage renal disease, and non-AIDS-defining cancer in HIV-infected versus uninfected adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:627-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Survival of HIV-positive patients starting antiretroviral therapy between 1996 and 2013: a collaborative analysis of cohort studies. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e349-e356.

PubMed Abstract»

Capeau J. Premature Aging and Premature Age-Related Comorbidities in HIV-Infected Patients: Facts and Hypotheses. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1127-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Deeks SG, Tracy R, Douek DC. Systemic effects of inflammation on health during chronic HIV infection. Immunity. 2013;39:633-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG. HIV infection, inflammation, immunosenescence, and aging. Annu Rev Med. 2011;62:141-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG. Immune dysfunction, inflammation, and accelerated aging in patients on antiretroviral therapy. Top HIV Med. 2009;17:118-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Desai SN, Landay AL. HIV and aging: role of the microbiome. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2018;13:22-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Goulet JL, Fultz SL, Rimland D, et al. Aging and infectious diseases: do patterns of comorbidity vary by HIV status, age, and HIV severity? Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1593-601.

PubMed Abstract»

Guaraldi G, Orlando G, Zona S, et al. Premature age-related comorbidities among HIV-infected persons compared with the general population. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1120-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Justice AC. HIV and aging: time for a new paradigm. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2010;7:69-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Lohse N, Obel N. Update of Survival for Persons With HIV Infection in Denmark. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165:749-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Losina E, Schackman BR, Sadownik SN, et al. Racial and sex disparities in life expectancy losses among HIV-infected persons in the united states: impact of risk behavior, late initiation, and early discontinuation of antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1570-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Onen NF, Agbebi A, Shacham E, Stamm KE, Onen AR, Overton ET. Frailty among HIV-infected persons in an urban outpatient care setting. J Infect. 2009;59:346-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Pathai S, Bajillan H, Landay AL, High KP. Is HIV a model of accelerated or accentuated aging? J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2014;69:833-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Rasmussen LD, May MT, Kronborg G, et al. Time trends for risk of severe age-related diseases in individuals with and without HIV infection in Denmark: a nationwide population-based cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2015;2:e288-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

Schouten J, Wit FW, Stolte IG, et al. Cross-sectional comparison of the prevalence of age-associated comorbidities and their risk factors between HIV-infected and uninfected individuals: the AGEhIV cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:1787-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh HK, Del Carmen T, Freeman R, Glesby MJ, Siegler EL. From One Syndrome to Many: Incorporating Geriatric Consultation Into HIV Care. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:501-6.

PubMed Abstract»

The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: Recommended Treatment Strategies for Clinicians Managing Older Patients with HIV. American Academy of HIV Medicine. Last Updated May 2017

AAHIVM»

Wandeler G, Johnson LF, Egger M. Trends in life expectancy of HIV-positive adults on antiretroviral therapy across the globe: comparisons with general population. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2016;11:492-500.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Accelerated versus Accentuated Aging

PubMed Abstract»

Angelovich TA, Hearps AC, Maisa A, et al. Viremic and Virologically Suppressed HIV Infection Increases Age-Related Changes to Monocyte Activation Equivalent to 12 and 4 Years of Aging, Respectively. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;69:11-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet. 2008;372:293-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG, Phillips AN. HIV infection, antiretroviral treatment, ageing, and non-AIDS related morbidity. BMJ. 2009;338:a3172.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG. HIV infection, inflammation, immunosenescence, and aging. Annu Rev Med. 2011;62:141-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG. Immune dysfunction, inflammation, and accelerated aging in patients on antiretroviral therapy. Top HIV Med. 2009;17:118-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Horvath S, Levine AJ. HIV-1 Infection Accelerates Age According to the Epigenetic Clock. J Infect Dis. 2015;212:1563-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Martin J, Volberding P. HIV and premature aging: A field still in its infancy. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:477-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Onen NF, Agbebi A, Shacham E, Stamm KE, Onen AR, Overton ET. Frailty among HIV-infected persons in an urban outpatient care setting. J Infect. 2009;59:346-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Pathai S, Bajillan H, Landay AL, High KP. Is HIV a model of accelerated or accentuated aging? J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2014;69:833-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Gail MH, et al. Cancer burden in the HIV-infected population in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103:753-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Epidemiology of HIV in Older Persons

Althoff KN, Gebo KA, Gange SJ, et al. CD4 count at presentation for HIV care in the United States and Canada: are those over 50 years more likely to have a delayed presentation? AIDS Res Ther. 2010;7:45.

PubMed Abstract»

Althoff KN, Justice AC, Gange SJ, et al. Virologic and immunologic response to HAART, by age and regimen class. AIDS. 2010;24:2469-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Baker JV, Peng G, Rapkin J, et al. CD4+ count and risk of non-AIDS diseases following initial treatment for HIV infection. AIDS. 2008;22:841-8.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Deeks SG, Phillips AN. HIV infection, antiretroviral treatment, ageing, and non-AIDS related morbidity. BMJ. 2009;338:a3172.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG. Immune dysfunction, inflammation, and accelerated aging in patients on antiretroviral therapy. Top HIV Med. 2009;17:118-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Egger M, May M, Chêne G, et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:119-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Esser S, Eisele L, Schwarz B, et al. Rates of cardiovascular events and deaths are associated with advanced stages of HIV-infection: results of the HIV HEART study 7, 5 year follow-up. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19542.

PubMed Abstract»

Pacheco YM, Jarrin I, Rosado I, et al. Increased risk of non-AIDS-related events in HIV subjects with persistent low CD4 counts despite cART in the CoRIS cohort. Antiviral Res. 2015;117:69-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Sabin CA, Smith CJ, d'Arminio Monforte A, et al. Response to combination antiretroviral therapy: variation by age. AIDS. 2008;22:1463-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Viard JP, Mocroft A, Chiesi A, et al. Influence of age on CD4 cell recovery in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: evidence from the EuroSIDA study. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:1290-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Screening and Detection of HIV in Older Adults

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital signs: HIV testing and diagnosis among adults--United States, 2001-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:1550-5.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Chadborn TR, Delpech VC, Sabin CA, Sinka K, Evans BG. The late diagnosis and consequent short-term mortality of HIV-infected heterosexuals (England and Wales, 2000-2004). AIDS. 2006;20:2371-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Egger M, May M, Chêne G, et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:119-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford CL, Godette DC, Mulatu MS, Gaines TL. Recent HIV Testing Prevalence, Determinants, and Disparities Among U.S. Older Adult Respondents to the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Sex Transm Dis. 2015;42:405-10.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Sexual risk behaviors and HIV risk among Americans aged 50 years or older: a review. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2015;6:51-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Schick V, Herbenick D, Reece M, et al. Sexual behaviors, condom use, and sexual health of Americans over 50: implications for sexual health promotion for older adults. J Sex Med. 2010;7 Suppl 5:315-29.

PubMed Abstract»

The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: Recommended Treatment Strategies for Clinicians Managing Older Patients with HIV. American Academy of HIV Medicine. Last Updated May 2017

AAHIVM»

Zablotsky D, Kennedy M. Risk factors and HIV transmission to midlife and older women: knowledge, options, and the initiation of safer sexual practices. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;33 Suppl 2:S122-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Antiretroviral Therapy in the Older Patient with HIV

Althoff KN, Justice AC, Gange SJ, et al. Virologic and immunologic response to HAART, by age and regimen class. AIDS. 2010;24:2469-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Cohen SM, Hu X, Sweeney P, Johnson AS, Hall HI. HIV viral suppression among persons with varying levels of engagement in HIV medical care, 19 US jurisdictions. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:519-27.

PubMed Abstract»

Courlet P, Livio F, Guidi M, et al. Polypharmacy, Drug-Drug Interactions, and Inappropriate Drugs: New Challenges in the Aging Population With HIV. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019;6:ofz531.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Gimeno-Gracia M, Crusells-Canales MJ, Javier Armesto-Gómez F, Rabanaque-Hernández MJ. Prevalence of concomitant medications in older HIV+ patients and comparison with general population. HIV Clin Trials. 2015;16:117-24.

PubMed Abstract»

Gleason LJ, Luque AE, Shah K. Polypharmacy in the HIV-infected older adult population. Clin Interv Aging. 2013;8:749-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Grabar S, Kousignian I, Sobel A, et al. Immunologic and clinical responses to highly active antiretroviral therapy over 50 years of age. Results from the French Hospital Database on HIV. AIDS. 2004;18:2029-38.

PubMed Abstract»

Manfredi R, Chiodo F. A case-control study of virological and immunological effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients with advanced age. AIDS. 2000;14:1475-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Marzolini C, Back D, Weber R, et al. Ageing with HIV: medication use and risk for potential drug-drug interactions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:2107-11.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Perez JL, Moore RD. Greater effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on survival in people aged > or =50 years compared with younger people in an urban observational cohort. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:212-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ranzani A, Oreni L, Agrò M, et al. Burden of Exposure to Potential Interactions Between Antiretroviral and Non-Antiretroviral Medications in a Population of HIV-Positive Patients Aged 50 Years or Older. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;78:193-201.

PubMed Abstract»

Sabin CA, Smith CJ, d'Arminio Monforte A, et al. Response to combination antiretroviral therapy: variation by age. AIDS. 2008;22:1463-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Silverberg MJ, Leyden W, Horberg MA, DeLorenze GN, Klein D, Quesenberry CP Jr. Older age and the response to and tolerability of antiretroviral therapy. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:684-91.

PubMed Abstract»

The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: Recommended Treatment Strategies for Clinicians Managing Older Patients with HIV. American Academy of HIV Medicine. Last Updated May 2017

AAHIVM»

PubMed Abstract»

Yehia BR, Rebeiro P, Althoff KN, et al. Impact of age on retention in care and viral suppression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68:413-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Common Comorbid Conditions in Older Persons with HIV

HIVMA»

American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 13. Older Adults: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2022. Diabetes Care. 2022;45:S195-S207.

PubMed Abstract»

American Diabetes Association. 12. Older Adults: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care. 2021 Jan;44:S168-S179.

PubMed Abstract»

American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes--2014. Diabetes Care. 2014;37 Suppl 1:S14-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Bozzette SA. HIV and Cardiovascular Disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:92-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Brothers TD, Kirkland S, Guaraldi G, et al. Frailty in people aging with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. J Infect Dis. 2014;210:1170-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, Hoy J, Borderi M, et al. Recommendations for Evaluation and Management of Bone Disease in HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1242-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2017. Estimates of diabetes and its burden in the United States. 2017:1-20.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report. Estimates of Diabetes and Its Burden in the United States. June 2022

CDC»

Clegg A, Young J, Iliffe S, Rikkert MO, Rockwood K. Frailty in elderly people. Lancet. 2013;381:752-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Cotter AG, Sabin CA, Simelane S, et al. Relative contribution of HIV infection, demographics and body mass index to bone mineral density. AIDS. 2014;28:2051-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Deeks SG, Phillips AN. HIV infection, antiretroviral treatment, ageing, and non-AIDS related morbidity. BMJ. 2009;338:a3172.

PubMed Abstract»

Desquilbet L, Jacobson LP, Fried LP, et al. HIV-1 infection is associated with an earlier occurrence of a phenotype related to frailty. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007;62:1279-86.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Engels EA, Biggar RJ, Hall HI, et al. Cancer risk in people infected with human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Int J Cancer. 2008;123:187-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Freiberg MS, Chang CC, Kuller LH, et al. HIV infection and the risk of acute myocardial infarction. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:614-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Fried LP, Tangen CM, Walston J, et al. Frailty in older adults: evidence for a phenotype. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2001;56:M146-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Greene M, Covinsky KE, Valcour V, et al. Geriatric Syndromes in Older HIV-Infected Adults. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;69:161-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK. Cardiovascular Disease in HIV: Traditional and Nontraditional Risk Factors. Top Antivir Med. 2014;22:676-679.

PubMed Abstract»

Haddow LJ, Floyd S, Copas A, Gilson RJ. A systematic review of the screening accuracy of the HIV Dementia Scale and International HIV Dementia Scale. PLoS One. 2013;8:e61826.

PubMed Abstract»

Hasse B, Ledergerber B, Furrer H, et al. Morbidity and aging in HIV-infected persons: the Swiss HIV cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1130-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Heaton RK, Clifford DB, Franklin DR Jr, et al. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders persist in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: CHARTER Study. Neurology. 2010;75:2087-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Klein D, Hurley LB, Quesenberry CP Jr, Sidney S. Do protease inhibitors increase the risk for coronary heart disease in patients with HIV-1 infection? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:471-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kloner RA, Carson C 3rd, Dobs A, Kopecky S, Mohler ER 3rd. Testosterone and Cardiovascular Disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;67:545-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Lichtenstein KA, Armon C, Buchacz K, et al. Low CD4+ T cell count is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease events in the HIV outpatient study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:435-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Looker AC, Borrud LG, Dawson-Hughes B, Shepherd JA, Wright NC. Osteoporosis or low bone mass at the femur neck or lumbar spine in older adults: United States, 2005-2008. NCHS Data Brief. 2012;:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Looker AC, Sarafrazi Isfahani N, Fan B, Shepherd JA. Trends in osteoporosis and low bone mass in older US adults, 2005-2006 through 2013-2014. Osteoporos Int. 2017;28:1979-88.

PubMed Abstract»

McComsey GA, Tebas P, Shane E, et al. Bone disease in HIV infection: a practical review and recommendations for HIV care providers. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:937-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53:695-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Onen NF, Agbebi A, Shacham E, Stamm KE, Onen AR, Overton ET. Frailty among HIV-infected persons in an urban outpatient care setting. J Infect. 2009;59:346-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Prince M, Bryce R, Albanese E, Wimo A, Ribeiro W, Ferri CP. The global prevalence of dementia: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9:63-75.e2.

PubMed Abstract»

Raynaud-Messina B, Bracq L, Dupont M, et al. Bone degradation machinery of osteoclasts: An HIV-1 target that contributes to bone loss. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018;115:E2556-E2565.

PubMed Abstract»

Rochira V, Diazzi C, Santi D, et al. Low testosterone is associated with poor health status in men with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a retrospective study. Andrology. 2015;3:298-308.

PubMed Abstract»

Sacktor NC, Wong M, Nakasujja N, et al. The International HIV Dementia Scale: a new rapid screening test for HIV dementia. AIDS. 2005;19:1367-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiau S, Broun EC, Arpadi SM, Yin MT. Incident fractures in HIV-infected individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2013;27:1949-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Gail MH, et al. Cancer burden in the HIV-infected population in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103:753-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Silverberg MJ, Neuhaus J, Bower M, et al. Risk of cancers during interrupted antiretroviral therapy in the SMART study. AIDS. 2007;21:1957-63.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith C, Sabin CA, Lundgren JD, et al. Factors associated with specific causes of death amongst HIV-positive individuals in the D:A:D Study. AIDS. 2010;24:1537-48.

PubMed Abstract»

The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: Recommended Treatment Strategies for Clinicians Managing Older Patients with HIV. American Academy of HIV Medicine. Last Updated May 2017

AAHIVM»

HIVMA»

Triant VA, Brown TT, Lee H, Grinspoon SK. Fracture prevalence among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected versus non-HIV-infected patients in a large U.S. healthcare system. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:3499-504.

PubMed Abstract»

Vance DE, Wadley VG, Crowe MG, Raper JL, Ball KK. Cognitive and Everyday Functioning in Older and Younger Adults with and without HIV. Clin Gerontol. 2011;34:413-426.

PubMed Abstract»

Womack JA, Goulet JL, Gibert C, et al. Increased risk of fragility fractures among HIV infected compared to uninfected male veterans. PLoS One. 2011;6:e17217.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 4. HIV in Older Adults

Life Expectancy, Age of Death, and Advanced Care Planning

PubMed Abstract»

Barocas JA, Erlandson KM, Belzer BK, Hess T, Sosman J. Advance directives among people living with HIV: room for improvement. AIDS Care. 2015;27:370-7.

PubMed Abstract»

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Harding R, Simms V, Krakauer E, et al. Quality HIV Care to the End of life. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:553-4; author reply 554.

PubMed Abstract»

Lohse N, Obel N. Update of Survival for Persons With HIV Infection in Denmark. Ann Intern Med. 2016;165:749-50.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: Recommended Treatment Strategies for Clinicians Managing Older Patients with HIV. American Academy of HIV Medicine. Last Updated May 2017

AAHIVM»

Wandeler G, Johnson LF, Egger M. Trends in life expectancy of HIV-positive adults on antiretroviral therapy across the globe: comparisons with general population. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2016;11:492-500.

PubMed Abstract»

Additional References

Akusjärvi SS, Neogi U. Biological Aging in People Living with HIV on Successful Antiretroviral Therapy: Do They Age Faster? Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2023;20:42-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Althoff KN, Jacobson LP, Cranston RD, et al. Age, comorbidities, and AIDS predict a frailty phenotype in men who have sex with men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2014;69:189-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Brown TT, Hoy J, Borderi M, et al. Recommendations for Evaluation and Management of Bone Disease in HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1242-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Kaplan R, Sax PE, et al. Raltegravir 1200 mg once daily versus raltegravir 400 mg twice daily, with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine, for previously untreated HIV-1 infection: a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet HIV. 2017;4:e486-e494.

PubMed Abstract»

Cahn P, Sax PE, Squires K, et al. Raltegravir 1200 mg Once Daily vs 400 mg Twice Daily, With Emtricitabine and Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate, for Previously Untreated HIV-1 Infection: Week 96 Results From ONCEMRK, a Randomized, Double-Blind, Noninferiority Trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;78:589-598.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Cotter AG, Sabin CA, Simelane S, et al. Relative contribution of HIV infection, demographics and body mass index to bone mineral density. AIDS. 2014;28:2051-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Egger M, May M, Chêne G, et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:119-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Engels EA, Biggar RJ, Hall HI, et al. Cancer risk in people infected with human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Int J Cancer. 2008;123:187-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Firlag-Burkacka E, Swiecki P, Cielniak I, et al. High frequency of neurosyphilis in HIV-positive patients diagnosed with early syphilis. HIV Med. 2016;17:323-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghanem KG, Moore RD, Rompalo AM, Erbelding EJ, Zenilman JM, Gebo KA. Lumbar puncture in HIV-infected patients with syphilis and no neurologic symptoms. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:816-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Gooden TE, Wang J, Zemedikun DT, et al. A matched cohort study investigating premature, accentuated, and accelerated aging in people living with HIV. HIV Med. 2023;24:640-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinspoon SK. Cardiovascular Disease in HIV: Traditional and Nontraditional Risk Factors. Top Antivir Med. 2014;22:676-679.

PubMed Abstract»

Haddow LJ, Floyd S, Copas A, Gilson RJ. A systematic review of the screening accuracy of the HIV Dementia Scale and International HIV Dementia Scale. PLoS One. 2013;8:e61826.

PubMed Abstract»

Hammond ER, Crum RM, Treisman GJ, et al. The cerebrospinal fluid HIV risk score for assessing central nervous system activity in persons with HIV. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;180:297-307.

PubMed Abstract»

Heaton RK, Clifford DB, Franklin DR Jr, et al. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders persist in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: CHARTER Study. Neurology. 2010;75:2087-96.

PubMed Abstract»

High KP, Brennan-Ing M, Clifford DB, et al. HIV and aging: state of knowledge and areas of critical need for research. A report to the NIH Office of AIDS Research by the HIV and Aging Working Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;60 Suppl 1:S1-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Jacks A, Wainwright DA, Salazar L, et al. Neurocognitive deficits increase risk of poor retention in care among older adults with newly diagnosed HIV infection. AIDS. 2015;29:1711-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Klein D, Hurley LB, Quesenberry CP Jr, Sidney S. Do protease inhibitors increase the risk for coronary heart disease in patients with HIV-1 infection? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:471-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Lichtenstein KA, Armon C, Buchacz K, et al. Low CD4+ T cell count is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease events in the HIV outpatient study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:435-47.

PubMed Abstract»

McComsey GA, Tebas P, Shane E, et al. Bone disease in HIV infection: a practical review and recommendations for HIV care providers. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:937-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, Bédirian V, et al. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53:695-9.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Keefe KJ, Scheer S, Chen MJ, Hughes AJ, Pipkin S. People fifty years or older now account for the majority of AIDS cases in San Francisco, California, 2010. AIDS Care. 2013;25:1145-8.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. What to start: initial combination regimens for people with HIV. September 12, 2024.

HIV.gov»

Prince M, Bryce R, Albanese E, Wimo A, Ribeiro W, Ferri CP. The global prevalence of dementia: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Alzheimers Dement. 2013;9:63-75.e2.

PubMed Abstract»

Sacktor NC, Wong M, Nakasujja N, et al. The International HIV Dementia Scale: a new rapid screening test for HIV dementia. AIDS. 2005;19:1367-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Samji H, Cescon A, Hogg RS, et al. Closing the gap: increases in life expectancy among treated HIV-positive individuals in the United States and Canada. PLoS One. 2013;8:e81355.

PubMed Abstract»

Sheppard DP, Iudicello JE, Morgan EE, et al. Accelerated and accentuated neurocognitive aging in HIV infection. J Neurovirol. 2017;23:492-500.

PubMed Abstract»

Shiels MS, Pfeiffer RM, Gail MH, et al. Cancer burden in the HIV-infected population in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103:753-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Silverberg MJ, Neuhaus J, Bower M, et al. Risk of cancers during interrupted antiretroviral therapy in the SMART study. AIDS. 2007;21:1957-63.

PubMed Abstract»

The HIV and Aging Consensus Project: Recommended Treatment Strategies for Clinicians Managing Older Patients with HIV. American Academy of HIV Medicine. Last Updated May 2017

AAHIVM»

HIVMA»

Vance DE, Wadley VG, Crowe MG, Raper JL, Ball KK. Cognitive and Everyday Functioning in Older and Younger Adults with and without HIV. Clin Gerontol. 2011;34:413-426.

PubMed Abstract»

Womack JA, Goulet JL, Gibert C, et al. Increased risk of fragility fractures among HIV infected compared to uninfected male veterans. PLoS One. 2011;6:e17217.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. Gonococcal infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Overview of United States Correctional System

Bronson J, Carson EA. Prisoners in 2017. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. April, 2019.

Bureau of Justice Statistics»

Bureau of Justice Statistics, Annual Probation Survey, Annual Parole Survey, Annual Survey of Jails, Census of Jail Inmates, and National Prisoner Statistics Program, 1980-2016. April 26, 2018.

Bureau of Justice Statistics»

Carson EA, Klucklow R. Correctional Populations in the United States, 2021 – Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. February, 2023.

Bureau of Justice»

Carson EA. Prisoners in 2018. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. April, 2020.

Bureau of Justice Statistics»

Drucker E. Drug prohibition and public health: 25 years of evidence. Public Health Rep. 1999;114:14-29.

PubMed Abstract»

Ghandnoosh N. Race and Punishment: Racial Perceptions of Crime and Support for Punitive Policies. The Sentencing Project. September 2014:1-44.

The Sentencing Project»

Institute for Criminal Policy Research (ICPR). Prison Population Total. World Prison Brief.

Institute for Criminal Policy Research (ICPR)»

Minton TD, Zeng Z. Jail inmates at midyear 2014. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. June 11, 2015.

Bureau of Justice»

National Institute of Corrections. US Department of Justice.

National Institute of Corrections»

Roberts TD. Right to treatment for the civilly committed: a new Eighth Amendment basis. Univ Chic Law Rev. 1978;45:731-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenfeld J. The Origin of Prisoner's Rights: Estelle v. Gamble 429 U.S. 97;75-929 (1976).

National Law Review»

Spaulding AC, Seals RM, Page MJ, Brzozowski AK, Rhodes W, Hammett TM. HIV/AIDS among inmates of and releasees from US correctional facilities, 2006: declining share of epidemic but persistent public health opportunity. PLoS One. 2009;4:e7558.

PubMed Abstract»

World Prison Brief: Highest to Lowest—Prison Population Total. World Prison Brief, Institute for Criminal Policy Research. 2021

World Prison Brief»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Epidemiology and Prevention of HIV in Correctional Setting

Bick JA. Infection control in jails and prisons. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1047-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Binswanger IA, Merrill JO, Krueger PM, White MC, Booth RE, Elmore JG. Gender differences in chronic medical, psychiatric, and substance-dependence disorders among jail inmates. Am J Public Health. 2009;100:476-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Bronson J, Stroop J, Zimmer S, Berzofsky M. Drug use, dependence, and abuse among state prisoners and jail inmates, 2007-2009. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report. June 2017 (revised August 10, 2020).

U.S. Department of Justice»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV transmission among male inmates in a state prison system—Georgia, 1992-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55:421-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2013. HIV Surveillance Report, 2013; vol. 25:1-82. Published February 2015.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV incidence in the United States, 2007–2010. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2012;17(No. 4):1-26. Published December 2012.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Testing Implementation Guidance for Correctional Settings. January 2009:1-28.

CDC»

Chandler RK, Fletcher BW, Volkow ND. Treating drug abuse and addiction in the criminal justice system: improving public health and safety. JAMA. 2009;301:183-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Fogel CI, Belyea M. The lives of incarcerated women: violence, substance abuse, and at risk for HIV. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 1999;10:66-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Gough E, Kempf MC, Graham L, Manzanero M, Hook EW, Bartolucci A, Chamot E. HIV and hepatitis B and C incidence rates in US correctional populations and high risk groups: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:777.

PubMed Abstract»

Hammett TM, Drachman-Jones A. HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases, and incarceration among women: national and southern perspectives. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33(7 Suppl):S17-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Hammett TM. HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases among correctional inmates: transmission, burden, and an appropriate response. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:974-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Macalino GE, Vlahov D, Sanford-Colby S, Patel S, Sabin K, Salas C, Rich JD. Prevalence and incidence of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infections among males in Rhode Island prisons. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:1218-23.

PubMed Abstract»

Maruschak LM, Bronson J. HIV in Prisons, 2015—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. August 24, 2017.

Bureau of Justice»

Maruschak LM, Bronson J. HIV in Prisons, 2021—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. March 2023.

Bureau of Justice»

Maruschak LM. HIV in Prisons, 2001-2010. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. September 13, 2012.

Bureau of Justice»

Maruschak LM. HIV in Prisons, 2020—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. May 2022.

Bureau of Justice»

Meyer JP, Cepeda J, Wu J, Trestman RL, Altice FL, Springer SA. Optimization of human immunodeficiency virus treatment during incarceration: viral suppression at the prison gate. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:721-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Reisner SL, Bailey Z, Sevelius J. Racial/ethnic disparities in history of incarceration, experiences of victimization, and associated health indicators among transgender women in the U.S. Women Health. 2014;54:750-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Seth P, Figueroa A, Wang G, Reid L, Belcher L. HIV Testing, HIV Positivity, and Linkage and Referral Services in Correctional Facilities in the United States, 2009-2013. Sex Transm Dis. 2015;42:643-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Springer SA, Chen S, Altice FL. Improved HIV and substance abuse treatment outcomes for released HIV-infected prisoners: the impact of buprenorphine treatment. J Urban Health. 2010;87:592-602.

PubMed Abstract»

Springer SA, Qiu J, Saber-Tehrani AS, Altice FL. Retention on buprenorphine is associated with high levels of maximal viral suppression among HIV-infected opioid dependent released prisoners. PLoS One. 2012;7:e38335.

PubMed Abstract»

Stein MS, Spaulding AC, Cunningham M, et al. HIV-positive and in jail: race, risk factors, and prior access to care. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S108-17.

PubMed Abstract»

United States Census Bureau. Quick facts—United States.

United States Census Bureau»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

HIV Testing in the Correctional Setting

Beckwith C, Bazerman L, Gillani F, et al. The feasibility of implementing the HIV seek, test, and treat strategy in jails. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2014;28:183-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Beckwith CG, Atunah-Jay S, Cohen J, et al. Feasibility and acceptability of rapid HIV testing in jail. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2007;21:41-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Beckwith CG, Zaller ND, Fu JJ, Montague BT, Rich JD. Opportunities to diagnose, treat, and prevent HIV in the criminal justice system. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55 Suppl 1:S49-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV screening of male inmates during prison intake medical evaluation--Washington, 2006-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:811-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV screening of male inmates during prison intake medical evaluation—Washington, 2006-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:811-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Routine jail-based HIV testing - Rhode Island, 2000-2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59:742-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Testing Implementation Guidance for Correctional Settings. January 2009:1-28.

CDC»

Culbert GJ. Violence and the perceived risks of taking antiretroviral therapy in US jails and prisons. Int J Prison Health. 2014;10:94-110.

PubMed Abstract»

de Voux A, Spaulding AC, Beckwith C, et al. Early identification of HIV: empirical support for jail-based screening. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37603.

PubMed Abstract»

Iroh PA, Mayo H, Nijhawan AE. The HIV Care Cascade Before, During, and After Incarceration: A Systematic Review and Data Synthesis. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:e5-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Macgowan R, Margolis A, Richardson-Moore A, et al. Voluntary rapid human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing in jails. Sex Transm Dis. 2009;36:S9-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Maruschak LM, Bronson J. HIV in Prisons, 2015—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. August 24, 2017.

Bureau of Justice»

Maruschak LM, Bronson J. HIV in Prisons, 2021—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. March 2023.

Bureau of Justice»

PubMed Abstract»

Solomon L, Montague BT, Beckwith CG, et al. Survey finds that many prisons and jails have room to improve HIV testing and coordination of postrelease treatment. Health Aff (Millwood). 2014;33:434-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Tarver BA, Sewell J, Oussayef N. State Laws Governing HIV Testing in Correctional Settings. J Correct Health Care. 2016;22:28-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Westergaard RP, Spaulding AC, Flanigan TP. HIV among persons incarcerated in the USA: a review of evolving concepts in testing, treatment, and linkage to community care. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2013;26:10-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

HIV Medical Care in Correctional Settings

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Testing Implementation Guidance for Correctional Settings. January 2009:1-28.

CDC»

Culbert GJ. Violence and the perceived risks of taking antiretroviral therapy in US jails and prisons. Int J Prison Health. 2014;10:94-110.

PubMed Abstract»

Roberts TD. Right to treatment for the civilly committed: a new Eighth Amendment basis. Univ Chic Law Rev. 1978;45:731-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenfeld J. The Origin of Prisoner's Rights: Estelle v. Gamble 429 U.S. 97;75-929 (1976).

National Law Review»

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Antiretroviral Therapy in the Correctional Setting

Altice FL, Mostashari F and Friedland GH. Trust and the acceptance of and adherence to antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28:47-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Culbert GJ. Violence and the perceived risks of taking antiretroviral therapy in US jails and prisons. Int J Prison Health. 2014;10:94-110.

PubMed Abstract»

Iroh PA, Mayo H, Nijhawan AE. The HIV Care Cascade Before, During, and After Incarceration: A Systematic Review and Data Synthesis. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:e5-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Merker A, Badowski M, Chiampas T, et al. Effectiveness of Single- and Multiple-Tablet Antiretroviral Regimens in Correctional Setting for Treatment-Experienced HIV Patients. J Correct Health Care. 2018;24:52-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Meyer JP, Cepeda J, Taxman FS, Altice FL. Sex-Related Disparities in Criminal Justice and HIV Treatment Outcomes: A Retrospective Cohort Study of HIV-Infected Inmates. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:1901-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Roberts TD. Right to treatment for the civilly committed: a new Eighth Amendment basis. Univ Chic Law Rev. 1978;45:731-52.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenfeld J. The Origin of Prisoner's Rights: Estelle v. Gamble 429 U.S. 97;75-929 (1976).

National Law Review»

Springer SA, Altice FL. Managing HIV/AIDS in correctional settings. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2005;2:165-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Springer SA, Pesanti E, Hodges J, Macura T, Doros G, Altice FL. Effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected prisoners: reincarceration and the lack of sustained benefit after release to the community. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:1754-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Westergaard RP, Kirk GD, Richesson DR, Galai N, Mehta SH. Incarceration predicts virologic failure for HIV-infected injection drug users receiving antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:725-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Wohl DA, Stephenson BL, Golin CE, et al. Adherence to directly observed antiretroviral therapy among human immunodeficiency virus-infected prison inmates. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:1572-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Zaller N, Thurmond P, Rich JD. Limited spending: an analysis of correctional expenditures on antiretrovirals for HIV-infected prisoners. Public Health Rep. 2007;122:49-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

HIV Care Cascade and Outcomes in the Correctional Setting

Altice FL, Mostashari F and Friedland GH. Trust and the acceptance of and adherence to antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28:47-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Costa M, Montague BT, Solomon L, et al. Assessing the Effect of Recent Incarceration in Prison on HIV Care Retention and Viral Suppression in Two States. J Urban Health. 2018;95:499-507.

PubMed Abstract»

Iroh PA, Mayo H, Nijhawan AE. The HIV Care Cascade Before, During, and After Incarceration: A Systematic Review and Data Synthesis. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:e5-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Maruschak LM, Bronson J. HIV in Prisons, 2015—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. August 24, 2017.

Bureau of Justice»

Maruschak LM, Bronson J. HIV in Prisons, 2021—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. March 2023.

Bureau of Justice»

Maruschak LM. HIV in Prisons, 2020—Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. May 2022.

Bureau of Justice»

PubMed Abstract»

Zaller N, Thurmond P, Rich JD. Limited spending: an analysis of correctional expenditures on antiretrovirals for HIV-infected prisoners. Public Health Rep. 2007;122:49-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Maintaining Confidentiality in the Correctional Setting

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Drug-susceptible tuberculosis outbreak in a state correctional facility housing HIV-infected inmates--South Carolina, 1999-2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000;49:1041-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Culbert GJ. Violence and the perceived risks of taking antiretroviral therapy in US jails and prisons. Int J Prison Health. 2014;10:94-110.

PubMed Abstract»

Goldstein MM. Health information privacy in the correctional environment, Oakland, CA: Community Oriented Correctional Health Services. April 2012.

Community Oriented Correctional Health Services»

Mayer KH, Spaulding A, Stephenson B, Macalino G, Ruby W, Clarke JG, Flanigan TP. Human immunodeficiency virus in correctional facilities: a review. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:305-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Strick L. Confidentiality and the Incarcerated Patient in the Community Setting. SGIM FORUM 2015;38:1-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Chronic Medical Conditions Among Persons with HIV who are Incarcerated

Bai JR, Befus M, Mukherjee DV, Lowy FD, Larson EL. Prevalence and Predictors of Chronic Health Conditions of Inmates Newly Admitted to Maximum Security Prisons. J Correct Health Care. 2015;21:255-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Bick JA. Infection control in jails and prisons. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:1047-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Binswanger IA, Krueger PM, Steiner JF. Prevalence of chronic medical conditions among jail and prison inmates in the USA compared with the general population. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2009;63:912-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Gallant JE. HIV Infection: Still a Disease for Experts. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61:1878-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Hennessey KA, Kim AA, Griffin V, Collins NT, Weinbaum CM, Sabin K. Prevalence of infection with hepatitis B and C viruses and co-infection with HIV in three jails: a case for viral hepatitis prevention in jails in the United States. J Urban Health. 2009;86:93-105.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV/AIDS Bureau, Special Projects of National Significance Program.Training manual: creating a jail linkage program. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration; September, 2013.

HRSA»

James DJ, Glaze LE. Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report. December 14, 2006.

U.S. Department of Justice»

PubMed Abstract»

Solomon L, Flynn C, Muck K, Vertefeuille J. Prevalence of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C among entrants to Maryland correctional facilities. J Urban Health. 2004;81:25-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Solomon L, Montague BT, Beckwith CG, et al. Survey finds that many prisons and jails have room to improve HIV testing and coordination of postrelease treatment. Health Aff (Millwood). 2014;33:434-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Spaulding AC, Kennedy SS, Osei J, et al. Estimates of Hepatitis C Seroprevalence and Viremia in State Prison Populations in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2023;228:S160-S167.

PubMed Abstract»

WriteExpress Corporation. Begin to Read. Literacy Statistics.

Begin to Read»

Young JD, Patel M, Badowski M, et al. Improved virologic suppression with HIV subspecialty care in a large prison system using telemedicine: an observational study with historical controls. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:123-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Young JD, Patel M. HIV Subspecialty Care in Correctional Facilities Using Telemedicine. J Correct Health Care. 2015;21:177-85.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Transition from the Correctional Setting to the Community

Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ, Doherty IA. HIV and African Americans in the southern United States: sexual networks and social context. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33:S39-45.

PubMed Abstract»

Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ. Social context, sexual networks, and racial disparities in rates of sexually transmitted infections. J Infect Dis. 2005;191 Suppl 1:S115-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Baillargeon J, Giordano TP, Rich JD, Wu ZH, Wells K, Pollock BH, Paar DP. Accessing antiretroviral therapy following release from prison. JAMA. 2009;301:848-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Baillargeon JG, Giordano TP, Harzke AJ, Baillargeon G, Rich JD, Paar DP. Enrollment in outpatient care among newly released prison inmates with HIV infection. Public Health Rep. 2010;125 Suppl 1:64-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Brinkley-Rubinstein L, Crowley C, Montgomery MC, et al. Interest and Knowledge of HIV Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in a Unified Jail and Prison Setting. J Correct Health Care. 2020;26:36-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Testing Implementation Guidance for Correctional Settings. January 2009:1-28.

CDC»

Fasula AM, Fogel CI, Gelaude D, Carry M, Gaiter J, Parker S. Project power: Adapting an evidence-based HIV/STI prevention intervention for incarcerated women. AIDS Educ Prev. 2013;25:203-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinstead O, Zack B, Faigeles B. Reducing post-release risk behavior among HIV seropositive prison inmates: the health promotion program. AIDS Educ Prev. 2001;13:109-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Iroh PA, Mayo H, Nijhawan AE. The HIV Care Cascade Before, During, and After Incarceration: A Systematic Review and Data Synthesis. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:e5-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Khan MR, Behrend L, Adimora AA, Weir SS, White BL, Wohl DA. Dissolution of primary intimate relationships during incarceration and implications for post-release HIV transmission. J Urban Health. 2011;88:365-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Milloy MJ, Kerr T, Buxton J, et al. Dose-response effect of incarceration events on nonadherence to HIV antiretroviral therapy among injection drug users. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:1215-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Solomon L, Montague BT, Beckwith CG, et al. Survey finds that many prisons and jails have room to improve HIV testing and coordination of postrelease treatment. Health Aff (Millwood). 2014;33:434-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Springer SA, Spaulding AC, Meyer JP, Altice FL. Public health implications for adequate transitional care for HIV-infected prisoners: five essential components. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:469-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Stephenson BL, Wohl DA, Golin CE, Tien HC, Stewart P, Kaplan AH. Effect of release from prison and re-incarceration on the viral loads of HIV-infected individuals. Public Health Rep. 2005;120:84-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Stephenson BL, Wohl DA, McKaig R, et al. Sexual behaviours of HIV-seropositive men and women following release from prison. Int J STD AIDS. 2006;17:103-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Zaller ND, Neher TL, Presley M, et al. Barriers to linking high-risk jail detainees to HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0231951.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 5. HIV and Corrections

Community Corrections

Bureau of Justice Statistics, Annual Probation Survey, Annual Parole Survey, Annual Survey of Jails, Census of Jail Inmates, and National Prisoner Statistics Program, 1980-2016. April 26, 2018.

Bureau of Justice Statistics»

Bureau of Justice»

Cropsey KL, Binswanger IA, Clark CB, Taxman FS. The unmet medical needs of correctional populations in the United States. J Natl Med Assoc. 2012;104:487-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Larney S, Hado S, McKenzie M, Rich JD. Unknown quantities: HIV, viral hepatitis, and sexually transmitted infections in community corrections. Sex Transm Dis. 2014;41:283.

PubMed Abstract»

Altice FL, Maru DS, Bruce RD, Springer SA, Friedland GH. Superiority of directly administered antiretroviral therapy over self-administered therapy among HIV-infected drug users: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:770-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Dean-Gaitor HD, Fleming PL. Epidemiology of AIDS in incarcerated persons in the United States, 1994-1996. AIDS. 1999;13:2429-35.

PubMed Abstract»

El-Sadr WM, Lundgren J, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2283-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Flanigan TP, Zaller N, Beckwith CG, et al. Testing for HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and viral hepatitis in jails: still a missed opportunity for public health and HIV prevention. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;55 Suppl 2:S78-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Grinstead OA, Faigeles B, Comfort M, et al. HIV, STD, and hepatitis risk to primary female partners of men being released from prison. Women Health. 2005;41:63-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Hart JE, Jeon CY, Ivers LC, et al. Effect of directly observed therapy for highly active antiretroviral therapy on virologic, immunologic, and adherence outcomes: a meta-analysis and systematic review. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;54:167-79.

PubMed Abstract»

Havlir DV, Bassett R, Levitan D, et al. Prevalence and predictive value of intermittent viremia with combination hiv therapy. JAMA. 2001;286:171-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Havlir DV, Hellmann NS, Petropoulos CJ, et al. Drug susceptibility in HIV infection after viral rebound in patients receiving indinavir-containing regimens. JAMA. 2000;283:229-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Havlir DV, Marschner IC, Hirsch MS, et al. Maintenance antiretroviral therapies in HIV infected patients with undetectable plasma HIV RNA after triple-drug therapy. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study 343 Team. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1261-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaeble D, Cowhig M. Correctional Populations in the United States, 2016. Bureau of Justice Statistics: Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. April 29, 2018.

Bureau of Justice Statistics»

PubMed Abstract»

United States Census Bureau. Quick facts—United States.

United States Census Bureau»

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Zhou XJ, Havlir DV, Richman DD, et al. Plasma population pharmacokinetics and penetration into cerebrospinal fluid of indinavir in combination with zidovudine and lamivudine in HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS. 2000;14:2869-76.

PubMed Abstract»

Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

Module 6 » Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

Introduction

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. The National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States. July 2010.

The White House: Washington»

Module 6 » Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

HIV Epidemiology In United States by Race/Ethnicity

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI. Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States. Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27:238-243.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Census Bureau. Population Estimates.

US Census Bureau»

Module 6 » Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

Comparison of HIV Diagnosis and Care by Race/Ethnicity

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas--2013. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2015;20(No. 2):1-70. Published July 2015.

CDC»

Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI. Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States. Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27:238-243.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaufman CE, Shelby L, Mosure DJ, et al. Within the hidden epidemic: sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS among American Indians and Alaska Natives. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:767-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Kelly JA, St Lawrence JS, Tarima SS, DiFranceisco WJ, Amirkhanian YA. Correlates of Sexual HIV Risk Among African American Men Who Have Sex With Men. Am J Public Health. 2016;106:96-102.

PubMed Abstract»

U.S. Census Bureau. Population Estimates.

US Census Bureau»

Wejnert C, Hess KL, Rose CE, Balaji A, Smith JC, Paz-Bailey G. Age-Specific Race and Ethnicity Disparities in HIV Infection and Awareness Among Men Who Have Sex With Men-20 US Cities, 2008-2014. J Infect Dis. 2016;213:776-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

HIV PrEP Coverage by Race/Ethnicity

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Core indicators for monitoring the Ending the HIV Epidemic initiative (preliminary data): National HIV Surveillance System data reported through March 2023; and preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) data reported through December 2022. HIV Surveillance Data Tables 2023;4(2). Published June 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Cheever LW. Engaging HIV-infected patients in care: their lives depend on it. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1500-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Dasgupta S, Oster AM, Li J, Hall HI. Disparities in Consistent Retention in HIV Care - 11 States and the District of Columbia, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Hahm HC, Song IH, Ozonoff A, Sassani JC. HIV testing among sexually experienced Asian and Pacific Islander young women association with routine gynecologic care. Womens Health Issues. 2009;19:279-88.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Lopez-Quintero C, Rojas P, Dillon FR, Varga LM, De La Rosa M. HIV testing practices among Latina women at risk of getting infected: a five-year follow-up of a community sample in South Florida. AIDS Care. 2016;28:137-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Moore RD, Stanton D, Gopalan R, Chaisson RE. Racial differences in the use of drug therapy for HIV disease in an urban community. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:763-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Oramasionwu CU, Brown CM, Lawson KA, Ryan L, Skinner J, Frei CR. Differences in national antiretroviral prescribing patterns between black and white patients with HIV/AIDS, 1996-2006. South Med J. 2011;104:794-800.

PubMed Abstract»

Palacio H, Kahn JG, Richards TA, Morin SF. Effect of race and/or ethnicity in use of antiretrovirals and prophylaxis for opportunistic infection: a review of the literature. Public Health Rep. 2002;117:233-51; discussion 231-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Ribaudo HJ, Smith KY, Robbins GK, et al. Racial differences in response to antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: an AIDS clinical trials group (ACTG) study analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:1607-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Rios-Ellis B, Becker D, Espinoza L, et al. Evaluation of a Community Health Worker Intervention to Reduce HIV/AIDS Stigma and Increase HIV Testing Among Underserved Latinos in the Southwestern U.S. Public Health Rep. 2015;130:458-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Sheehan DM, Trepka MJ, Dillon FR. Latinos in the United States on the HIV/AIDS care continuum by birth country/region: a systematic review of the literature. Int J STD AIDS. 2015;26:1-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Washington TA, D'Anna L, Meyer-Adams N, Malotte CK. From Their Voices: Barriers to HIV Testing among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men Remain. Healthcare (Basel). 2015;3:933-947.

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

Health Outcomes and Death by Race/Ethnicity

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Linton SL, Cooper HL, Kelley ME, et al. HIV Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs in the United States: Geographically Explained Variance Across Racial and Ethnic Groups. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:2457-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Oramasionwu CU, Hunter JM, Skinner J, et al. Black race as a predictor of poor health outcomes among a national cohort of HIV/AIDS patients admitted to US hospitals: a cohort study. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:127.

PubMed Abstract»

Pettersen PS, Brox IK, Naman E, et al. Antiretroviral treatment failure predicts mortality in rural Tanzania. Int J STD AIDS. 2015;26:633-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Reilley B, Bloss E, Byrd KK, Iralu J, Neel L, Cheek J. Death rates from human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis among American Indians/Alaska Natives in the United States, 1990-2009. Am J Public Health. 2014;104 Suppl 3:S453-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Siddiqi AE, Hu X, Hall HI. Mortality among blacks or African Americans with HIV infection--United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:81-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

Factors Associated with Health Inequities

Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ, Taylor EM, Khan MR, Schwartz RJ. Concurrent partnerships, nonmonogamous partners, and substance use among women in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2011;101:128-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Anastario MP, FourStar K, Rink E. Sexual risk behavior and symptoms of historical loss in American Indian men. J Community Health. 2013;38:894-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Aral SO, Adimora AA, Fenton KA. Understanding and responding to disparities in HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in African Americans. Lancet. 2008;372:337-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Bowleg L, Fitz CC, Burkholder GJ, et al. Racial discrimination and posttraumatic stress symptoms as pathways to sexual HIV risk behaviors among urban Black heterosexual men. AIDS Care. 2014;26:1050-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Brandon DT, Isaac LA, LaVeist TA. The legacy of Tuskegee and trust in medical care: is Tuskegee responsible for race differences in mistrust of medical care? J Natl Med Assoc. 2005;97:951-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Bureau of Justice»

Cooper HL, Linton S, Kelley ME, et al. Racialized risk environments in a large sample of people who inject drugs in the United States. Int J Drug Policy. 2016;27:43-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Everson-Rose SA, Lutsey PL, Roetker NS, et al. Perceived Discrimination and Incident Cardiovascular Events: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Am J Epidemiol. 2015;182:225-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Families Against Mandatory Minimums.

Families Against Mandatory Minimums»

Frye V, Nandi V, Egan J, et al. Sexual orientation- and race-based discrimination and sexual HIV risk behavior among urban MSM. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:257-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Gamble VN. Under the shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and health care. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:1773-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Gilbert PA, Rhodes SD. HIV testing among immigrant sexual and gender minority Latinos in a US region with little historical Latino presence. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2013;27:628-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Gilley BJ, Keesee M. Linking 'White oppression' and HIV/AIDS in American Indian etiology: conspiracy beliefs among MSMs and their peers. Am Indian Alsk Native Ment Health Res. 2007;14:44-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Han CS, Ayala G, Paul JP, Boylan R, Gregorich SE, Choi KH. Stress and coping with racism and their role in sexual risk for HIV among African American, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Latino men who have sex with men. Arch Sex Behav. 2015;44:411-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Hatzenbuehler ML, Phelan JC, Link BG. Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:813-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurd NM, Valerio MA, Garcia NM, Scott AA. Adapting an HIV prevention intervention for high-risk, incarcerated adolescents. Health Educ Behav. 2010;37:37-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Hurd NM, Zimmerman MA, Xue Y. Negative adult influences and the protective effects of role models: a study with urban adolescents. J Youth Adolesc. 2009;38:777-89.

PubMed Abstract»

Justman J, Befus M, Hughes J, et al. Sexual Behaviors of US Women at Risk of HIV Acquisition: A Longitudinal Analysis of Findings from HPTN 064. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:1327-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Kaufman CE, Shelby L, Mosure DJ, et al. Within the hidden epidemic: sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS among American Indians and Alaska Natives. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:767-77.

PubMed Abstract»

Khan MR, Doherty IA, Schoenbach VJ, Taylor EM, Epperson MW, Adimora AA. Incarceration and high-risk sex partnerships among men in the United States. J Urban Health. 2009;86:584-601.

PubMed Abstract»

Levison JH, Levinson JK, Alegría M. A Critical Review and Commentary on the Challenges in Engaging HIV-Infected Latinos in the Continuum of HIV Care. AIDS Behav. 2018;22:2500-2512.

PubMed Abstract»

Magnus M, Kuo I, Shelley K, et al. Risk factors driving the emergence of a generalized heterosexual HIV epidemic in Washington, District of Columbia networks at risk. AIDS. 2009;23:1277-84.

PubMed Abstract»

Mays VM, Coles CN, Cochran SD. Is there a legacy of the U.S. Public Health Syphilis Study at Tuskegee in HIV/AIDS-related beliefs among heterosexual African-Americans and Latinos? Ethics Behav. 2012;22:461-471.

PubMed Abstract»

Morris M, Kretzschmar M. Concurrent partnerships and the spread of HIV. AIDS. 1997;11:641-8.

PubMed Abstract»

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Criminal Justice Fact Sheet.

NAACP»

Negin J, Aspin C, Gadsden T, Reading C. HIV Among Indigenous peoples: A Review of the Literature on HIV-Related Behaviour Since the Beginning of the Epidemic. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:1720-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Nellis A. The Color of Justice: Racial and Ethnic Disparity in State Prisons. The Sentencing Project. October 13, 2021

Sentencing Project»

Pouget ER, Kershaw TS, Niccolai LM, Ickovics JR, Blankenship KM. Associations of sex ratios and male incarceration rates with multiple opposite-sex partners: potential social determinants of HIV/STI transmission. Public Health Rep. 2010;125 Suppl 4:70-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Scharff DP, Mathews KJ, Jackson P, Hoffsuemmer J, Martin E, Edwards D. More than Tuskegee: understanding mistrust about research participation. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2010;21:879-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Sentencing Project. New incarceration figures: Growth in population continues.

The Sentencing Project»

Stein MS, Spaulding AC, Cunningham M, et al. HIV-positive and in jail: race, risk factors, and prior access to care. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S108-17.

PubMed Abstract»

Westergaard RP, Beach MC, Saha S, Jacobs EA. Racial/ethnic differences in trust in health care: HIV conspiracy beliefs and vaccine research participation. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29:140-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Widman L, Noar SM, Golin CE, Willoughby JF, Crosby R. Incarceration and unstable housing interact to predict sexual risk behaviours among African American STD clinic patients. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:348-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Williams DR, Neighbors HW, Jackson JS. Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: findings from community studies. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:S29-37.

PubMed Abstract»

Wilson PA, Nanin J, Amesty S, Wallace S, Cherenack EM, Fullilove R. Using syndemic theory to understand vulnerability to HIV infection among Black and Latino men in New York City. J Urban Health. 2014;91:983-98.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 6. HIV in Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations

Future Directions for Reducing HIV-Related Disparities

Aral SO, Adimora AA, Fenton KA. Understanding and responding to disparities in HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in African Americans. Lancet. 2008;372:337-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Clemans-Cope L, Kenney GM, Buettgens M, Carroll C, Blavin F. The Affordable Care Act's coverage expansions will reduce differences in uninsurance rates by race and ethnicity. Health Aff (Millwood). 2012;31:920-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Dasgupta S, Oster AM, Li J, Hall HI. Disparities in Consistent Retention in HIV Care - 11 States and the District of Columbia, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Ford CL, Konrad TR, Godette DC, Corbie-Smith G. Acceptance of routine ELISA testing among black women STD patients: relationship to patient-provider racial concordance. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35:211-3.

PubMed Abstract»

King WD, Wong MD, Shapiro MF, Landon BE, Cunningham WE. Does racial concordance between HIV-positive patients and their physicians affect the time to receipt of protease inhibitors? J Gen Intern Med. 2004;19:1146-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Nunn A, Cornwall A, Thomas G, et al. What's God got to do with it? Engaging African-American faith-based institutions in HIV prevention. Glob Public Health. 2013;8:258-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Nunn A, Sanders J, Carson L, et al. African American community leaders' policy recommendations for reducing racial disparities in HIV infection, treatment, and care: results from a community-based participatory research project in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Health Promot Pract. 2015;16:91-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Tanser F, Bärnighausen T, Vandormael A, Dobra A. HIV treatment cascade in migrants and mobile populations. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2015;10:430-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Traylor AH, Schmittdiel JA, Uratsu CS, Mangione CM, Subramanian U. Adherence to cardiovascular disease medications: does patient-provider race/ethnicity and language concordance matter? J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25:1172-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Bogart LM, Mutchler MG, McDavitt B, et al. A Randomized Controlled Trial of Rise, a Community-Based Culturally Congruent Adherence Intervention for Black Americans Living with HIV. Ann Behav Med. 2017;51:868-878.

PubMed Abstract»

Bureau of Justice»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data—United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2017. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2019;24(No. 3):1-74. Published June 2019.

CDC»

Cheever LW. Engaging HIV-infected patients in care: their lives depend on it. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1500-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Dasgupta S, Oster AM, Li J, Hall HI. Disparities in Consistent Retention in HIV Care - 11 States and the District of Columbia, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Dennis AM, Napravnik S, Seña AC, Eron JJ. Late entry to HIV care among Latinos compared with non-Latinos in a southeastern US cohort. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:480-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Fauci AS, Redfield RR, Sigounas G, Weahkee MD, Giroir BP. Ending the HIV Epidemic: A Plan for the United States. JAMA. 2019;321:844-845.

PubMed Abstract»

Freeman R, Gwadz MV, Silverman E, et al. Critical race theory as a tool for understanding poor engagement along the HIV care continuum among African American/Black and Hispanic persons living with HIV in the United States: a qualitative exploration. Int J Equity Health. 2017;16:54.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI. Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States. Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27:238-243.

PubMed Abstract»

Pellowski JA, Price DM, Allen AM, Eaton LA, Kalichman SC. The differences between medical trust and mistrust and their respective influences on medication beliefs and ART adherence among African-Americans living with HIV. Psychol Health. 2017;32:1127-1139.

PubMed Abstract»

Rosenberg ES, Millett GA, Sullivan PS, Del Rio C, Curran JW. Understanding the HIV disparities between black and white men who have sex with men in the USA using the HIV care continuum: a modeling study. Lancet HIV. 2014;1:e112-e118.

PubMed Abstract»

Staszewski S, Morales-Ramirez J, Tashima KT, et al. Efavirenz plus zidovudine and lamivudine, efavirenz plus indinavir, and indinavir plus zidovudine and lamivudine in the treatment of HIV-1 infection in adults. Study 006 Team. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:1865-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Stein MS, Spaulding AC, Cunningham M, et al. HIV-positive and in jail: race, risk factors, and prior access to care. AIDS Behav. 2013;17 Suppl 2:S108-17.

PubMed Abstract»

White House Office of National AIDS Policy. National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States: Updated to 2020. Washington, DC. July 2015.

The White House: Washington»

PubMed Abstract»

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Module 6 » Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Background

Buchmueller T, Carpenter CS. Disparities in health insurance coverage, access, and outcomes for individuals in same-sex versus different-sex relationships, 2000-2007. Am J Public Health. 2010;100:489-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Chester SD, Ehrenfeld JM, Eckstrand KL. Results of an Institutional LGBT Climate Survey at an Academic Medical Center. LGBT Health. 2014;1:327-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Cramer RJ, Burks AC, Plöderl M, Durgampudi P. Minority stress model components and affective well-being in a sample of sexual orientation minority adults living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care. 2017;29:1517-1523.

PubMed Abstract»

Durso LE, Baker L, Cray A. LGBT Communities and the Affordable Care Act: Findings from a National Survey. Center for American Progress. October 10, 2013

Center for American Progress»

Flores AR, Herman JL, Gates GJ, Brown NT. How Many Adults Identify as Transgender in the United States. Williams Institute: UCLA School of Law. June 2016.

Williams Institute»

Gates GJ. In U.S., More Adults Identifying as LGBT. Social and Policy Issues. January 11, 2017.

GALLUP News»

Grant JM, Mottet LA, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman JL, Keisling M. Injustice at every turn: a report of the National Transgender Survey. Washington: National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, 2011.

National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force»

Hatzenbuehler ML, Keyes KM, Hasin DS. State-level policies and psychiatric morbidity in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. Am J Public Health. 2009;99:2275-81.

PubMed Abstract»

Heck JE, Sell RL, Gorin SS. Health care access among individuals involved in same-sex relationships. Am J Public Health. 2006;96:1111-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Herman JL, Flores AR, O’Neill KK. How many adults and youth identify as transgender in the United States. Williams Institute: UCLA School of Law. June 2022.

Williams Institute»

Johns MM, Lowry R, Andrzejewski J, et al. Transgender Identity and Experiences of Violence Victimization, Substance Use, Suicide Risk, and Sexual Risk Behaviors Among High School Students - 19 States and Large Urban School Districts, 2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:67-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Jones J. U.S. LGBT Identification Steady at 7.2%. Gallup News. February 2023.

GALLUP News»

Kates J, Beamesderfer A, Salganicoff A, Dawson L. Health and Access to Care and Coverage for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Individuals in the U.S. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Updated August, 2017.

Kaiser Family Foundation»

Mayer KH, Bradford JB, Makadon HJ, Stall R, Goldhammer H, Landers S. Sexual and gender minority health: what we know and what needs to be done. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:989-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Meerwijk EL, Sevelius JM. Transgender Population Size in the United States: a Meta-Regression of Population-Based Probability Samples. Am J Public Health. 2017;107:e1-e8.

PubMed Abstract»

Meyer IH. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull. 2003;129:674-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Operario D, Gamarel KE, Grin BM, et al. Sexual Minority Health Disparities in Adult Men and Women in the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001-2010. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:e27-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Skopec L, Long SK. Lesbian, Gay, And Bisexual Adults Making Gains In Health Insurance And Access To Care. Health Aff (Millwood). 2015;34:1769-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Strutz KL, Herring AH, Halpern CT. Health disparities among young adult sexual minorities in the U.S. Am J Prev Med. 2015;48:76-88.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Terminology

GLAAD Media Reference Guide – Transgender Issues.

GLAAD»

LGBTQIA Resource Center Glossary. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex and Asexual (LGBTQIA) Resource Center. University of California, Davis. Last updated November 2, 2017.

LGBTQIA Resource Center»

Thompson J, Hopwood RA, deNormand S, Cavanaugh T. Medical Care of Trans and Gender Diverse Adults. March 2021. Fenway Health, Boston. March 2021.

Fenway Health»

Module 6 » Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Medical Care for LGBT Persons

Chester SD, Ehrenfeld JM, Eckstrand KL. Results of an Institutional LGBT Climate Survey at an Academic Medical Center. LGBT Health. 2014;1:327-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Durso LE, Baker L, Cray A. LGBT Communities and the Affordable Care Act: Findings from a National Survey. Center for American Progress. October 10, 2013

Center for American Progress»

Federal Register. Nondiscrimination in Health and Health Education Programs or Activities, Delegation of Authority. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. June 19, 2020.

Federal Register»

National Center for Transgender Equality and National Gay and Lesbian Task Force»

Skopec L, Long SK. Lesbian, Gay, And Bisexual Adults Making Gains In Health Insurance And Access To Care. Health Aff (Millwood). 2015;34:1769-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson J, Hopwood RA, deNormand S, Cavanaugh T. Medical Care of Trans and Gender Diverse Adults. March 2021. Fenway Health, Boston. March 2021.

Fenway Health»

Module 6 » Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Cisgender Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM)

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older, United States 2018.

ACIP»

Akhtar-Khaleel WZ, Cook RL, Shoptaw S, et al. Trends and Predictors of Cigarette Smoking Among HIV Seropositive and Seronegative Men: The Multicenter Aids Cohort Study. AIDS Behav. 2016;20:622-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Beckett M, Burnam A, Collins RL, Kanouse DE, Beckman R. Substance use and high-risk sex among people with HIV: a comparison across exposure groups. AIDS Behav. 2003;7:209-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Boone MR, Cook SH, Wilson P. Substance use and sexual risk behavior in HIV-positive men who have sex with men: an episode-level analysis. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:1883-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Bostwick WB, Boyd CJ, Hughes TL, McCabe SE. Dimensions of sexual orientation and the prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2010;100:468-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradshaw D, Matthews G, Danta M. Sexually transmitted hepatitis C infection: the new epidemic in MSM? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2013;26:66-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Carrico AW, Neilands TB, Johnson MO. Suicidal ideation is associated with HIV transmission risk in men who have sex with men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;54:e3-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2016. HIV Surveillance Report, 2016; vol. 28:1-125. Published November 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2010–2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2018;23(No. 1):1-77. Published March 2018.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas, 2015. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2017;22(No. 2):1-63. Published July 2017.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mpox. Mpox Vaccination Basics.

CDC»

Ciesla JA, Roberts JE. Meta-analysis of the relationship between HIV infection and risk for depressive disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:725-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Clutterbuck D, Asboe D, Barber T, et al. 2016 United Kingdom national guideline on the sexual health care of men who have sex with men. Int J STD AIDS. 2018;:956462417746897.

PubMed Abstract»

Colasanti J, Kelly J, Pennisi E, et al. Continuous Retention and Viral Suppression Provide Further Insights Into the HIV Care Continuum Compared to the Cross-sectional HIV Care Cascade. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:648-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Danta M, Rodger AJ. Transmission of HCV in HIV-positive populations. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2011;6:451-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Dasgupta S, Oster AM, Li J, Hall HI. Disparities in Consistent Retention in HIV Care - 11 States and the District of Columbia, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Drumright LN, Patterson TL, Strathdee SA. Club drugs as causal risk factors for HIV acquisition among men who have sex with men: a review. Subst Use Misuse. 2006;41:1551-601.

PubMed Abstract»

Frye V, Nandi V, Egan J, et al. Sexual orientation- and race-based discrimination and sexual HIV risk behavior among urban MSM. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:257-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Fulcher JA, Shoptaw S, Makgoeng SB, et al. Brief Report: Recent Methamphetamine Use Is Associated With Increased Rectal Mucosal Inflammatory Cytokines, Regardless of HIV-1 Serostatus. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018;78:119-123.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenwood GL, Paul JP, Pollack LM, et al. Tobacco use and cessation among a household-based sample of US urban men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2005;95:145-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, An Q, Tang T, et al. Prevalence of Diagnosed and Undiagnosed HIV Infection--United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:657-62.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Hatfield LA, Horvath KJ, Jacoby SM, Simon Rosser BR. Comparison of substance use and risky sexual behavior among a diverse sample of urban, HIV-positive men who have sex with men. J Addict Dis. 2009;28:208-18.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV Epidemiology: Annual Report, 2016. San Francisco Department of Public Health Population Health Division. September 2017.

SF Department of Health»

HIV/AIDS Epidemiology Unit, Public Health – Seattle & King County and the Infectious Disease Assessment Unit, Washington State Department of Health.HIV/AIDS Epidemiology Report 2016, Volume 85.

Washington State Department of Health»

Jamal A, Homa DM, O'Connor E, et al. Current Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2005-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:1233-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Jones J. U.S. LGBT Identification Steady at 7.2%. Gallup News. February 2023.

GALLUP News»

Kahler CW, Wray TB, Pantalone DW, et al. Daily associations between alcohol use and unprotected anal sex among heavy drinking HIV-positive men who have sex with men. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:422-30.

PubMed Abstract»

Keiser O, Spoerri A, Brinkhof MW, et al. Suicide in HIV-infected individuals and the general population in Switzerland, 1988-2008. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:143-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Kim DK, Riley LE, Hunter P. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older - United States, 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:158-160.

PubMed Abstract»

Knight DA, Jarrett D. Preventive Health Care for Men Who Have Sex with Men. Am Fam Physician. 2015;91:844-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Koblin BA, Husnik MJ, Colfax G, et al. Risk factors for HIV infection among men who have sex with men. AIDS. 2006;20:731-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Koblin BA, Mayer KH, Eshleman SH, et al. Correlates of HIV acquisition in a cohort of Black men who have sex with men in the United States: HIV prevention trials network (HPTN) 061. PLoS One. 2013;8:e70413.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Lee JG, Griffin GK, Melvin CL. Tobacco use among sexual minorities in the USA, 1987 to May 2007: a systematic review. Tob Control. 2009;18:275-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Lewnard JA, Berrang-Ford L. Internet-based partner selection and risk for unprotected anal intercourse in sexual encounters among men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Sex Transm Infect. 2014;90:290-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Marin B, Thiébaut R, Bucher HC, et al. Non-AIDS-defining deaths and immunodeficiency in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2009;23:1743-53.

PubMed Abstract»

Mayer KH, Bekker LG, Stall R, Grulich AE, Colfax G, Lama JR. Comprehensive clinical care for men who have sex with men: an integrated approach. Lancet. 2012;380:378-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Newman KL, Newman GS, Cybulski RJ, Fang FC. Gastroenteritis in Men Who Have Sex With Men in Seattle, Washington, 2017-2018. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Jun 24;71:109-15.

PubMed Abstract»

Palefsky JM, Lee JY, Jay N, et al. Treatment of Anal High-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions to Prevent Anal Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:2273-82.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Park IU, Introcaso C, Dunne EF. Human Papillomavirus and Genital Warts: A Review of the Evidence for the 2015 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61 Suppl 8:S849-55.

PubMed Abstract»

Patel P, Bush T, Mayer K, et al. Routine brief risk-reduction counseling with biannual STD testing reduces STD incidence among HIV-infected men who have sex with men in care. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:470-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Purcell DW, Moss S, Remien RH, Woods WJ, Parsons JT. Illicit substance use, sexual risk, and HIV-positive gay and bisexual men: differences by serostatus of casual partners. AIDS. 2005;19 Suppl 1:S37-47.

PubMed Abstract»

Sherr L, Clucas C, Harding R, Sibley E, Catalan J. HIV and depression--a systematic review of interventions. Psychol Health Med. 2011;16:493-527.

PubMed Abstract»

Skarbinski J, Rosenberg E, Paz-Bailey G, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission at each step of the care continuum in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:588-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith C, Sabin CA, Lundgren JD, et al. Factors associated with specific causes of death amongst HIV-positive individuals in the D:A:D Study. AIDS. 2010;24:1537-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Stall R, Mills TC, Williamson J, et al. Association of co-occurring psychosocial health problems and increased vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among urban men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:939-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Tang H, Greenwood GL, Cowling DW, Lloyd JC, Roeseler AG, Bal DG. Cigarette smoking among lesbians, gays, and bisexuals: how serious a problem? (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 2004;15:797-803.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor LE, Holubar M, Wu K, et al. Incident hepatitis C virus infection among US HIV-infected men enrolled in clinical trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:812-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Tieu HV, Liu TY, Hussen S, et al. Sexual Networks and HIV Risk among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men in 6 U.S. Cities. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0134085.

PubMed Abstract»

Urbanus AT, Van De Laar TJ, Geskus R, et al. Trends in hepatitis C virus infections among MSM attending a sexually transmitted infection clinic; 1995-2010. AIDS. 2014;28:781-90.

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US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

van der Helm JJ, Prins M, del Amo J, et al. The hepatitis C epidemic among HIV-positive MSM: incidence estimates from 1990 to 2007. AIDS. 2011;25:1083-91.

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Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Detection of STIs in Special populations. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Wu H, Mendoza MC, Huang YA, Hayes T, Smith DK, Hoover KW. Uptake of HIV Preexposure Prophylaxis Among Commercially Insured Persons-United States, 2010-2014. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:144-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Cisgender Women Who Have Sex with Women (WSW)

Bauer GR, Welles SL. Beyond assumptions of negligible risk: sexually transmitted diseases and women who have sex with women. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:1282-6.

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Blosnich JR, Farmer GW, Lee JG, Silenzio VM, Bowen DJ. Health inequalities among sexual minority adults: evidence from ten U.S. states, 2010. Am J Prev Med. 2014;46:337-49.

PubMed Abstract»

Chan SK, Thornton LR, Chronister KJ, et al. Likely female-to-female sexual transmission of HIV--Texas, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:209-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Chu SY, Conti L, Schable BA, Diaz T. Female-to-female sexual contact and HIV transmission. JAMA. 1994;272:433.

PubMed Abstract»

Chu SY, Hammett TA, Buehler JW. Update: epidemiology of reported cases of AIDS in women who report sex only with other women, United States, 1980-1991. AIDS. 1992;6:518-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Cochran SD, Mays VM, Bowen D, et al. Cancer-related risk indicators and preventive screening behaviors among lesbians and bisexual women. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:591-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Cochran SD, Mays VM. Mortality risks among persons reporting same-sex sexual partners: evidence from the 2008 General Social Survey-National Death Index data set. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:358-64.

PubMed Abstract»

Diamant AL, Schuster MA, McGuigan K, Lever J. Lesbians' sexual history with men: implications for taking a sexual history. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:2730-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Eliason MJ, Ingraham N, Fogel SC, et al. A systematic review of the literature on weight in sexual minority women. Womens Health Issues. 2015;25:162-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Estrich CG, Gratzer B, Hotton AL. Differences in sexual health, risk behaviors, and substance use among women by sexual identity: Chicago, 2009-2011. Sex Transm Dis. 2014;41:194-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Evans AL, Scally AJ, Wellard SJ, Wilson JD. Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis in lesbians and heterosexual women in a community setting. Sex Transm Infect. 2007;83:470-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Gonzales G, Przedworski J, Henning-Smith C. Comparison of Health and Health Risk Factors Between Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults and Heterosexual Adults in the United States: Results From the National Health Interview Survey. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:1344-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Gorgos LM, Marrazzo JM. Sexually transmitted infections among women who have sex with women. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53 Suppl 3:S84-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Huang J, Kim Y, Vera L, Emery SL. Electronic Cigarettes Among Priority Populations: Role of Smoking Cessation and Tobacco Control Policies. Am J Prev Med. 2015;50:199-209.

PubMed Abstract»

Jones J. U.S. LGBT Identification Steady at 7.2%. Gallup News. February 2023.

GALLUP News»

King M, Semlyen J, Tai SS, et al. A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry. 2008;8:70.

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Knight DA, Jarrett D. Preventive Health Care for Men Who Have Sex with Men. Am Fam Physician. 2015;91:844-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Koh AS, Ross LK. Mental health issues: a comparison of lesbian, bisexual and heterosexual women. J Homosex. 2006;51:33-57.

PubMed Abstract»

Kwakwa HA, Ghobrial MW. Female-to-female transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:e40-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Logie CH, Lacombe-Duncan A, Weaver J, Navia D, Este D. A Pilot Study of a Group-Based HIV and STI Prevention Intervention for Lesbian, Bisexual, Queer, and Other Women Who Have Sex with Women in Canada. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2015;29:321-8.

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Logie CH, Navia D, Loutfy MR. Correlates of a lifetime history of sexually transmitted infections among women who have sex with women in Toronto, Canada: results from a cross-sectional internet-based survey. Sex Transm Infect. 2015;91:278-83.

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Marrazzo JM, Koutsky LA, Stine KL, et al. Genital human papillomavirus infection in women who have sex with women. J Infect Dis. 1998;178:1604-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM, Stine K, Wald A. Prevalence and risk factors for infection with herpes simplex virus type-1 and -2 among lesbians. Sex Transm Dis. 2003;30:890-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Marrazzo JM. Barriers to infectious disease care among lesbians. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:1974-8.

PubMed Abstract»

McElroy JA, Haynes SG, Eliason MJ, et al. Healthy Weight in Lesbian and Bisexual Women Aged 40 and Older: An Effective Intervention in 10 Cities Using Tailored Approaches. Womens Health Issues. 2016;26 Suppl 1:S18-35.

PubMed Abstract»

Mereish EH, Poteat VP. Let's Get Physical: Sexual Orientation Disparities in Physical Activity, Sports Involvement, and Obesity Among a Population-Based Sample of Adolescents. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:1842-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Meyer IH. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull. 2003;129:674-97.

PubMed Abstract»

Monzon OT, Capellan JM. Female-to-female transmission of HIV. Lancet. 1987;2:40-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Mravcak SA. Primary care for lesbians and bisexual women. Am Fam Physician. 2006:74:279-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Oeffinger KC, Fontham ET, Etzioni R, et al. Breast Cancer Screening for Women at Average Risk: 2015 Guideline Update From the American Cancer Society. JAMA. 2015;314:1599-614.

PubMed Abstract»

Quinn GP, Sanchez JA, Sutton SK, et al. Cancer and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) populations. CA Cancer J Clin. 2015;65:384-400.

PubMed Abstract»

Raiteri R, Fora R, Sinicco A. No HIV-1 transmission through lesbian sex. Lancet. 1994;344:270.

PubMed Abstract»

Rich JD, Buck A, Tuomala RE, Kazanjian PH. Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus infection presumed to have occurred via female homosexual contact. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:1003-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Schick V, Rosenberger JG, Herbenick D, Reece M. Sexual behaviour and risk reduction strategies among a multinational sample of women who have sex with women. Sex Transm Infect. 2012;88:407-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Simoni JM, Smith L, Oost KM, Lehavot K, Fredriksen-Goldsen K. Disparities in Physical Health Conditions Among Lesbian and Bisexual Women: A Systematic Review of Population-Based Studies. J Homosex. 2017;64:32-44.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh D, Fine DN, Marrazzo JM. Chlamydia trachomatis infection among women reporting sexual activity with women screened in Family Planning Clinics in the Pacific Northwest, 1997 to 2005. Am J Public Health. 2011;101:1284-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Siu AL. Screening for Breast Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:279-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Toorians AW, Thomassen MC, Zweegman S, Magdeleyns EJ, Tans G, Gooren LJ, Rosing J. Venous thrombosis and changes of hemostatic variables during cross-sex hormone treatment in transsexual people. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:5723-9.

PubMed Abstract»

VanKim NA, Austin SB, Jun HJ, Hu FB, Corliss HL. Dietary Patterns during Adulthood among Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women in the Nurses' Health Study II. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2017;117:386-395.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. Detection of STIs in Special populations. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Xu F, Sternberg MR, Markowitz LE. Women who have sex with women in the United States: prevalence, sexual behavior and prevalence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection-results from national health and nutrition examination survey 2001-2006. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37:407-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Transgender Women

PubMed Abstract»

Asscheman H, Giltay EJ, Megens JA, de Ronde WP, van Trotsenburg MA, Gooren LJ. A long-term follow-up study of mortality in transsexuals receiving treatment with cross-sex hormones. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011;164:635-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Badiee J, Moore DJ, Atkinson JH, et al. Lifetime suicidal ideation and attempt are common among HIV+ individuals. J Affect Disord. 2012;136:993-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Bauer GR, Scheim AI, Pyne J, Travers R, Hammond R. Intervenable factors associated with suicide risk in transgender persons: a respondent driven sampling study in Ontario, Canada. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:525.

PubMed Abstract»

Bauer GR, Travers R, Scanlon K, Coleman TA. High heterogeneity of HIV-related sexual risk among transgender people in Ontario, Canada: a province-wide respondent-driven sampling survey. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:292.

PubMed Abstract»

Becasen JS, Denard CL, Mullins MM, Higa DH, Sipe TA. Estimating the Prevalence of HIV and Sexual Behaviors Among the US Transgender Population: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, 2006-2017. Am J Public Health. 2019;109:e1-e8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bockting WO, Miner MH, Swinburne Romine RE, Hamilton A, Coleman E. Stigma, mental health, and resilience in an online sample of the US transgender population. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:943-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradford J, Reisner SL, Honnold JA, Xavier J. Experiences of transgender-related discrimination and implications for health: results from the Virginia Transgender Health Initiative Study. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:1820-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health. University of California, San Francisco.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV/AIDS: HIV among transgender people.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas--2013. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2015;20(No. 2):1-70. Published July 2015.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Clements-Nolle K, Marx R, Guzman R, Katz M. HIV Prevalence, Risk Behaviors, Health Care Use, and Mental Health Status of Transgender Persons: Implications for Public Health Intervention. Am J Pub Health. 2001;91:915-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Coleman E, Radix AE, Bouman WP, et al. Standards of Care for the Health of Transgender and Gender Diverse People, Version 8. Int J Transgend Health. 2022;23:S1-S259.

PubMed Abstract»

Colizzi M, Costa R, Todarello O. Transsexual patients' psychiatric comorbidity and positive effect of cross-sex hormonal treatment on mental health: results from a longitudinal study. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014;39:65-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Crissman HP, Berger MB, Graham LF, Dalton VK. Transgender Demographics: A Household Probability Sample of US Adults, 2014. Am J Public Health. 2017;107:213-215.

PubMed Abstract»

Deutsch MB. General approach to cancer screening in transgender people. In: Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People. Center of Excellence for Transgender Health, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. 2nd edition. Deutsch MB, ed. June 17, 2016.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Deutsch MB. Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People. Center of Excellence for Transgender Health, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. 2nd edition. Deutsch MB, ed. June 17, 2016.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Deutsch MB. Overview of Feminizing Hormone Therapy. In: Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People. Center of Excellence for Transgender Health, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. 2nd edition. Deutsch MB, ed. June 17, 2016.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Deutsch MB. Overview of Gender-Affirming Treatments and Procedures. In: Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People. Center of Excellence for Transgender Health, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. 2nd edition. Deutsch MB, ed. June 17, 2016.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Dittrich R, Binder H, Cupisti S, Hoffmann I, Beckmann MW, Mueller A. Endocrine treatment of male-to-female transsexuals using gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2005;113:586-92.

PubMed Abstract»

Elbers JM, Giltay EJ, Teerlink T, et al. Effects of sex steroids on components of the insulin resistance syndrome in transsexual subjects. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2003;58:562-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Elifson KW, Boles J, Posey E, Sweat M, Darrow W, Elsea W. Male transvestite prostitutes and HIV risk. Am J Public Health. 1993;83:260-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Flores AR, Herman JL, Gates GJ, Brown NT. How Many Adults Identify as Transgender in the United States. Williams Institute: UCLA School of Law. June 2016.

Williams Institute»

Gómez-Gil E, Zubiaurre-Elorza L, Esteva I, et al. Hormone-treated transsexuals report less social distress, anxiety and depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2012;37:662-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Goldstein Z, Khan M, Reisman T, Safer JD. Managing the risk of venous thromboembolism in transgender adults undergoing hormone therapy. J Blood Med. 2019;10:209-16.

PubMed Abstract»

Gooren LJ, Wierckx K, Giltay EJ. Cardiovascular disease in transsexual persons treated with cross-sex hormones: reversal of the traditional sex difference in cardiovascular disease pattern. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014;170:809-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Hadj-Moussa M, Ohl DA, Kuzon WM Jr. Feminizing Genital Gender-Confirmation Surgery. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6:457-468.e2.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

Hembree WC, Cohen-Kettenis P, Delemarre-van de Waal HA, et al. Endocrine treatment of transsexual persons: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:3132-54.

PubMed Abstract»

Hembree WC, Cohen-Kettenis PT, Gooren L, et al. Endocrine Treatment of Gender-Dysphoric/Gender-Incongruent Persons: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102:3869-3903.

PubMed Abstract»

Herman JL, Flores AR, O’Neill KK. How many adults and youth identify as transgender in the United States. Williams Institute: UCLA School of Law. June 2022.

Williams Institute»

Hiransuthikul A, Janamnuaysook R, Himmad K, et al. Drug-drug interactions between feminizing hormone therapy and pre-exposure prophylaxis among transgender women: the iFACT study. J Int AIDS Soc. 2019;22:e25338.

PubMed Abstract»

James SE, Herman JL, Rankin S, et al. The report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. National Center for Transgender Equality. December, 2016.

National Center for Transgender Equality»

Jones J. U.S. LGBT Identification Steady at 7.2%. Gallup News. February 2023.

GALLUP News»

Kellogg TA, Clements-Nolle K, Dilley J, Katz MH, McFarland W. Incidence of human immunodeficiency virus among male-to-female transgendered persons in San Francisco. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28:380-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Keuroghlian AS, Reisner SL, White JM, Weiss RD. Substance use and treatment of substance use disorders in a community sample of transgender adults. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;152:139-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Klein C, Gorzalka BB. Sexual functioning in transsexuals following hormone therapy and genital surgery: a review. J Sex Med. 2009;6:2922-39; quiz 2940-1.

PubMed Abstract»

Lopes M, Olfson M, Rabkin J, et al. Gender, HIV status, and psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012;73:384-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Meerwijk EL, Sevelius JM. Transgender Population Size in the United States: a Meta-Regression of Population-Based Probability Samples. Am J Public Health. 2017;107:e1-e8.

PubMed Abstract»

Moore E, Wisniewski A, Dobs A. Endocrine treatment of transsexual people: a review of treatment regimens, outcomes, and adverse effects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:3467-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Morrison SD, Chen ML, Crane CN. An overview of female-to-male gender-confirming surgery. Nat Rev Urol. 2017;14:486-500.

PubMed Abstract»

Nemoto T, Luke D, Mamo L, Ching A, Patria J. HIV risk behaviors among male-to-female transgenders in comparison with homosexual or bisexual males and heterosexual females. AIDS Care. 1999;11:297-312.

PubMed Abstract»

Nuttbrock L, Bockting W, Rosenblum A, et al. Gender abuse and major depression among transgender women: a prospective study of vulnerability and resilience. Am J Public Health. 2014;104:2191-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Oeffinger KC, Fontham ET, Etzioni R, et al. Breast Cancer Screening for Women at Average Risk: 2015 Guideline Update From the American Cancer Society. JAMA. 2015;314:1599-614.

PubMed Abstract»

Operario D, Soma T, Underhill K. Sex work and HIV status among transgender women: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;48:97-103.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Considerations for Antiretroviral Use in Special Patient Populations: Transgender People with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. December 18, 2019.

HIV.gov»

Poteat T, Reisner SL, Radix A. HIV epidemics among transgender women. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2014;9:168-73.

PubMed Abstract»

Poteat T, Scheim A, Xavier J, Reisner S, Baral S. Global Epidemiology of HIV Infection and Related Syndemics Affecting Transgender People. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72 Suppl 3:S210-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Poteat T, Wirtz AL, Radix A, et al. HIV risk and preventive interventions in transgender women sex workers. Lancet. 2015;385:274-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Poteat T. Transgender health and HIV. In: Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People. Center of Excellence for Transgender Health, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. 2nd edition. Deutsch MB, ed. June 17, 2016.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Radix A, Deutsch MB. Bone Health and Osteoporosis. In: Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People. Center of Excellence for Transgender Health, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. 2nd edition. Deutsch MB, ed. June 17, 2016.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Radix A, Sevelius J, Deutsch MB. Transgender women, hormonal therapy and HIV treatment: a comprehensive review of the literature and recommendations for best practices. J Int AIDS Soc. 2016;19:20810.

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Reisner SL, Vetters R, Leclerc M, et al. Mental health of transgender youth in care at an adolescent urban community health center: a matched retrospective cohort study. J Adolesc Health. 2015;56:274-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Rowe C, Santos GM, McFarland W, Wilson EC. Prevalence and correlates of substance use among trans female youth ages 16-24 years in the San Francisco Bay Area. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015;147:160-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Schechter LS. Gender Confirmation Surgery: An Update for the Primary Care Provider. Transgend Health. 2016;1:32-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Selvaggi G, Bellringer J. Gender reassignment surgery: an overview. Nat Rev Urol. 2011;8:274-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Siu AL. Screening for Breast Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:279-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson J, Hopwood RA, deNormand S, Cavanaugh T. Medical Care of Trans and Gender Diverse Adults. March 2021. Fenway Health, Boston. March 2021.

Fenway Health»

PubMed Abstract»

Unger CA. Hormone therapy for transgender patients. Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5:877-884.

PubMed Abstract»

Unger CA. Update on Gender-Affirming Treatment for the Transgender Woman. Semin Reprod Med. 2017;35:442-447.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Grossman DC, Curry SJ, et al. Screening for Prostate Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2018;319:1901-1913.

PubMed Abstract»

van Kesteren P, Asscheman H, Megens JA, Gooren LJ. Mortality and morbidity in transsexual subjects treated with cross-sex hormones. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1997;47:337-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Walter KN, Petry NM. Lifetime suicide attempt history, quality of life, and objective functioning among HIV/AIDS patients with alcohol and illicit substance use disorders. Int J STD AIDS. 2016;27:476-85.

PubMed Abstract»

World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH). 2012. Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Non-Conforming People. World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH).

WPATH»

Module 6 » Lesson 7. HIV in Sexual and Gender Minority Populations

Transgender Men

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Chen S, McFarland W, Thompson HM, Raymond HF. Transmen in San Francisco: what do we know from HIV test site data? AIDS Behav. 2011;15:659-62.

PubMed Abstract»

De Cuypere G, T'Sjoen G, Beerten R, et al. Sexual and physical health after sex reassignment surgery. Arch Sex Behav. 2005;34:679-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Deutsch MB, Radix A, Wesp L. Breast Cancer Screening, Management, and a Review of Case Study Literature in Transgender Populations. Semin Reprod Med. 2017;35:434-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Deutsch MB. Overview of Masculinizing Hormone Therapy. In: Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People. Center of Excellence for Transgender Health, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California, San Francisco. 2nd edition. Deutsch MB, ed. June 17, 2016.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Haas AP, Eliason M, Mays VM, et al. Suicide and suicide risk in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations: review and recommendations. J Homosex. 2011;58:10-51.

PubMed Abstract»

Kenagy GP. Transgender health: findings from two needs assessment studies in Philadelphia. Health Soc Work. 2005;30:19-26.

PubMed Abstract»

Keo-Meier CL, Herman LI, Reisner SL, Pardo ST, Sharp C, Babcock JC. Testosterone treatment and MMPI-2 improvement in transgender men: a prospective controlled study. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2015;83:143-56.

PubMed Abstract»

Meerwijk EL, Sevelius JM. Transgender Population Size in the United States: a Meta-Regression of Population-Based Probability Samples. Am J Public Health. 2017;107:e1-e8.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Poteat T, Scheim A, Xavier J, Reisner S, Baral S. Global Epidemiology of HIV Infection and Related Syndemics Affecting Transgender People. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2016;72 Suppl 3:S210-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

Reisner SL, Gamarel KE, Dunham E, Hopwood R, Hwahng S. Female-to-male transmasculine adult health: a mixed-methods community-based needs assessment. J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc. 2013;19:293-303.

PubMed Abstract»

Reisner SL, Murchison GR. A global research synthesis of HIV and STI biobehavioural risks in female-to-male transgender adults. Glob Public Health. 2016;11:866-87.

PubMed Abstract»

Reisner SL, Pardo ST, Gamarel KE, White Hughto JM, Pardee DJ, Keo-Meier CL. Substance Use to Cope with Stigma in Healthcare Among U.S. Female-to-Male Trans Masculine Adults. LGBT Health. 2015;2:324-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Rowniak S, Chesla C, Rose CD, Holzemer WL. Transmen: the HIV risk of gay identity. AIDS Educ Prev. 2011;23:508-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Schechter LS. Gender Confirmation Surgery: An Update for the Primary Care Provider. Transgend Health. 2016;1:32-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Selvaggi G, Bellringer J. Gender reassignment surgery: an overview. Nat Rev Urol. 2011;8:274-82.

PubMed Abstract»

Smalley KB, Warren JC, Barefoot KN. Differences in health risk behaviors across understudied LGBT subgroups. Health Psychol. 2016;35:103-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Thompson J, Hopwood RA, deNormand S, Cavanaugh T. Medical Care of Trans and Gender Diverse Adults. March 2021. Fenway Health, Boston. March 2021.

Fenway Health»

Wierckx K, Van Caenegem E, Elaut E, et al. Quality of life and sexual health after sex reassignment surgery in transsexual men. J Sex Med. 2011;8:3379-88.

PubMed Abstract»

WPATH»

Additional References

PubMed Abstract»

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule by Medical Condition and Other Indications, United States, 2024.

ACIP»

Arnsten JH, Li X, Mizuno Y, et al. Factors associated with antiretroviral therapy adherence and medication errors among HIV-infected injection drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46 Suppl 2:S64-71.

PubMed Abstract»

Baral SD, Poteat T, Strömdahl S, Wirtz AL, Guadamuz TE, Beyrer C. Worldwide burden of HIV in transgender women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:214-22.

PubMed Abstract»

Barbosa C, Cowell A, Bray J, Aldridge A. The Cost-effectiveness of Alcohol Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) in Emergency and Outpatient Medical Settings. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2015;53:1-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bing EG, Burnam MA, Longshore D, et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:721-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Bradshaw D, Matthews G, Danta M. Sexually transmitted hepatitis C infection: the new epidemic in MSM? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2013;26:66-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2018 (Updated). HIV Surveillance Report, 2020; vol. 31:1-119. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2021. HIV Surveillance Report, 2021; vol. 34. Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2014–2018. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2020;25(No. 1):1-77. Published May 2020.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV Incidence and Prevalence in the United States, 2017–2021. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2023;28(3). Published May 2023.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Monitoring selected national HIV prevention and care objectives by using HIV surveillance data--United States and 6 U.S. dependent areas--2013. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2015;20(No. 2):1-70. Published July 2015.

CDC»

PubMed Abstract»

Colfax G, Vittinghoff E, Husnik MJ, et al. Substance use and sexual risk: a participant- and episode-level analysis among a cohort of men who have sex with men. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:1002-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Danta M, Rodger AJ. Transmission of HCV in HIV-positive populations. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2011;6:451-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Das M, Raymond HF, Chu P, et al. Measuring the unknown: calculating community viral load among HIV-infected MSM unaware of their HIV status in San Francisco from National HIV Behavioral Surveillance, 2004-2011. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;63:e84-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Dasgupta S, Oster AM, Li J, Hall HI. Disparities in Consistent Retention in HIV Care - 11 States and the District of Columbia, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65:77-82.

PubMed Abstract»

De Santis JP. HIV infection risk factors among male-to-female transgender persons: a review of the literature. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2009;20:362-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Deutsch MB, Feldman JL. Updated recommendations from the world professional association for transgender health standards of care. Am Fam Physician. 2013;87:89-93.

PubMed Abstract»

Frye V, Nandi V, Egan J, et al. Sexual orientation- and race-based discrimination and sexual HIV risk behavior among urban MSM. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:257-69.

PubMed Abstract»

Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-99.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenman Y. The endocrine care of transsexual people. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:1014.

PubMed Abstract»

Greninger AL, Addetia A, Starr K, et al. International Spread of Multidrug-Resistant Campylobacter coli in Men Who Have Sex With Men in Washington State and Québec, 2015-2018. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:1896-1904.

PubMed Abstract»

Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173:1337-44.

Pub Med Abstract»

PubMed Abstract»

Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. The Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People. Building a Foundation for Better Understanding. March 2011.

Institute of Medicine»

Jamal A, Homa DM, O'Connor E, et al. Current Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2005-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:1233-40.

PubMed Abstract»

Kamiya H, MacNeil J, Blain A, et al. Meningococcal disease among men who have sex with men - United States, January 2012-June 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:1256-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kelly JA, St Lawrence JS, Tarima SS, DiFranceisco WJ, Amirkhanian YA. Correlates of Sexual HIV Risk Among African American Men Who Have Sex With Men. Am J Public Health. 2016;106:96-102.

PubMed Abstract»

Kenagy GP, Hsieh CM. The risk less known: female-to-male transgender persons' vulnerability to HIV infection. AIDS Care. 2005;17:195-207.

PubMed Abstract»

Kratz MM, Weiss D, Ridpath A, et al. Community-Based Outbreak of Neisseria meningitidis Serogroup C Infection in Men who Have Sex with Men, New York City, New York, USA, 2010-2013. Emerg Infect Dis. 2015;21:1379-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Landovitz RJ, Donnell D, Clement ME, et al. Cabotegravir for HIV prevention in cisgender men and transgender women. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:595-608.

PubMed Abstract»

Lewi DS, Suleiman JM, Uip DE, et al. Randomized, double-blind trial comparing indinavir alone, zidovudine alone and indinavir plus zidovudine in antiretroviral therapy-naive HIV-infected individuals with CD4 cell counts between 50 and 250/mm³. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2000;42:27-36.

PubMed Abstract»

Lopes M, Olfson M, Rabkin J, et al. Gender, HIV status, and psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012;73:384-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Manhart LE, Gillespie CW, Lowens MS, et al. Standard treatment regimens for nongonococcal urethritis have similar but declining cure rates: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;56:934-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Maraka S, Singh Ospina N, Rodriguez-Gutierrez R, et al. Sex Steroids and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Transgender Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102:3914-3923.

PubMed Abstract»

Marks G, Crepaz N, Janssen RS. Estimating sexual transmission of HIV from persons aware and unaware that they are infected with the virus in the USA. AIDS. 2006;20:1447-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Michos ED, Budoff MJ. Testosterone: therapeutic or toxic for the cardiovascular health of men? Lancet Healthy Longev. 2022;3:e368-e369.

PubMed Abstract»

Molina JM, Capitant C, Spire B, et al. On-demand preexposure prophylaxis in men at high risk for HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2237-46.

PubMed Abstract»

National Center for Transgender Equality. Transgender Health Insurance Laws. May 13, 2016.

National Center for Transgender Equality»

PubMed Abstract»

Nemoto T, Operario D, Keatley J, Han L, Soma T. HIV risk behaviors among male-to-female transgender persons of color in San Francisco. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:1193-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Noor SW, Ross MW, Lai D, Risser JM. Drug and sexual HIV risk behaviours related to knowledge of HIV serostatus among injection drug users in Houston, Texas. Int J STD AIDS. 2014;25:89-95.

PubMed Abstract»

Oeffinger KC, Fontham ET, Etzioni R, et al. Breast Cancer Screening for Women at Average Risk: 2015 Guideline Update From the American Cancer Society. JAMA. 2015;314:1599-614.

PubMed Abstract»

Palefsky JM, Lee JY, Jay N, et al. Treatment of Anal High-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions to Prevent Anal Cancer. N Engl J Med. 2022;386:2273-82.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in adults and adolescents with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Drug-drug interactions. Table 24a. Drug interactions between protease inhibitors and other drugs. September 1, 2022.

HIV.gov»

Park LS, Hernández-Ramírez RU, Silverberg MJ, Crothers K, Dubrow R. Prevalence of non-HIV cancer risk factors in persons living with HIV/AIDS: a meta-analysis. AIDS. 2016;30:273-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Raymond HF, Chen YH, Ick T, et al. A new trend in the HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men, San Francisco, 2004-2011. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:584-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Samet JH, Cheng DM, Libman H, Nunes DP, Alperen JK, Saitz R. Alcohol consumption and HIV disease progression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46:194-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Sausa LA, Sevelius J, Keatley, J, Iñiguez JR, Reyes M. Policy Recommendations for Inclusive Data Collection of Trans People in HIV Prevention, Care & Services. Center of Excellence for Transgender HIV Prevention: University of California, San Francisco. 2009.

Center of Excellence for Transgender Health»

PubMed Abstract»

Simon PA, Reback CJ, Bemis CC. HIV prevalence and incidence among male-to-female transsexuals receiving HIV prevention services in Los Angeles County [correspondence]. AIDS. 2000;14:2953–5.

PubMed Abstract»

Singh-Ospina N, Maraka S, Rodriguez-Gutierrez R, et al. Effect of Sex Steroids on the Bone Health of Transgender Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102:3904-3913.

PubMed Abstract»

Siu AL. Screening for Breast Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:279-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Skarbinski J, Rosenberg E, Paz-Bailey G, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus transmission at each step of the care continuum in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:588-96.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith C, Sabin CA, Lundgren JD, et al. Factors associated with specific causes of death amongst HIV-positive individuals in the D:A:D Study. AIDS. 2010;24:1537-48.

PubMed Abstract»

Stephens SC, Bernstein KT, Philip SS. Male to female and female to male transgender persons have different sexual risk behaviors yet similar rates of STDs and HIV. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:683-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Taylor LE, Holubar M, Wu K, et al. Incident hepatitis C virus infection among US HIV-infected men enrolled in clinical trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:812-8.

PubMed Abstract»

The Fenway Institute. The National LGTB Health Education Center.

Fenway Health»

Urbanus AT, Van De Laar TJ, Geskus R, et al. Trends in hepatitis C virus infections among MSM attending a sexually transmitted infection clinic; 1995-2010. AIDS. 2014;28:781-90.

PubMed Abstract»

US Preventive Services Task Force, Grossman DC, Curry SJ, et al. Screening for Prostate Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA. 2018;319:1901-1913.

PubMed Abstract»

US Public Health Service. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States—2017 Update. A Clinical Practice Guideline. March 2018:1-77.

CDC»

van Aar F, Mooij SH, van der Sande MA, et al. Twelve-month incidence and clearance of oral HPV infection in HIV-negative and HIV-infected men who have sex with men: the H2M cohort study. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:668.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Helm JJ, Prins M, del Amo J, et al. The hepatitis C epidemic among HIV-positive MSM: incidence estimates from 1990 to 2007. AIDS. 2011;25:1083-91.

PubMed Abstract»

When Health Care Isn’t Caring. Lambda Legal’s Survey on Discrimination Against LGBT People and People Living with HIV. 2010.

Lambda Legal»

Whitfield DL, Kattari SK, Walls NE, Al-Tayyib A. Grindr, Scruff, and on the Hunt: Predictors of Condomless Anal Sex, Internet Use, and Mobile Application Use Among Men Who Have Sex With Men. Am J Mens Health. 2017;11:775-784.

PubMed Abstract»

Wolitski RJ, Parsons JT, Gómez CA. Prevention with HIV-seropositive men who have sex with men: lessons from the Seropositive Urban Men's Study (SUMS) and the Seropositive Urban Men's Intervention Trial (SUMIT). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;37 Suppl 2:S101-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Workowski KA, Bachmann LH, Chan PA, et al. Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021. HIV infection: detection, counseling, and referral. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2021;70(No. RR-4):1-187.

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

2021 STI Treatment Guidelines»

2021 STD Treatment Guidelines»

2015 STD Treatment Guidelines»

Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

Module 6 » Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

Background

Ariën KK, Abraha A, Quiñones-Mateu ME, Kestens L, Vanham G, Arts EJ. The replicative fitness of primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) group M, HIV-1 group O, and HIV-2 isolates. J Virol. 2005;79:8979-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Burgard M, Jasseron C, Matheron S, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-2 infection from 1986 to 2007 in the ANRS French Perinatal Cohort EPF-CO1. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:833-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). AIDS due to HIV-2 infection--New Jersey. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1988;37:33-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV-2 Infection Surveillance--United States, 1987-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:985-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Evans LA, Moreau J, Odehouri K, et al. Simultaneous isolation of HIV-1 and HIV-2 from an AIDS patient. Lancet. 1988;2:1389-91.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS, Raugi DN, Smith RA. 90-90-90 for HIV-2? Ending the HIV-2 epidemic by enhancing care and clinical management of patients infected with HIV-2. Lancet HIV. 2018;5:e390-e399.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS. Changing HIV epidemics: what HIV-2 can teach us about ending HIV-1. AIDS. 2013;27:135-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Kanki PJ, Travers KU, MBoup S, et al. Slower heterosexual spread of HIV-2 than HIV-1. Lancet. 1994;343:943-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Marlink R, Kanki P, Thior I, et al. Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-1. Science. 1994;265:1587-90.

PubMed Abstract»

Matheron S, Pueyo S, Damond F, et al. Factors associated with clinical progression in HIV-2 infected-patients: the French ANRS cohort. AIDS. 2003;17:2593-601.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al. Trends in HIV-2 Diagnoses and Use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 Differentiation Test - United States, 2010-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:63-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Torian LV, Eavey JJ, Punsalang AP, et al. HIV type 2 in New York City, 2000-2008. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:1334-42.

PubMed Abstract»

UNAIDS. Fact Sheet. 2023.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. Global AIDS Update 2016.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. Global AIDS Update 2023: the Path that Ends AIDS

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. HIV/AIDS. Data and statistics: 2022.

UNAIDS»

Williams A, Menon S, Crowe M, et al. Geographic and population distributions of HIV-1 and HIV-2 circulating subtypes: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis (2010-2021). J Infect Dis. 2023 Aug 18. Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

Pathogenesis, Transmission, and Natural History of HIV-2

Adjorlolo-Johnson G, De Cock KM, Ekpini E, et al. Prospective comparison of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. JAMA. 1994;272:462-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Burgard M, Jasseron C, Matheron S, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-2 infection from 1986 to 2007 in the ANRS French Perinatal Cohort EPF-CO1. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:833-43.

PubMed Abstract»

De Cock KM, Odehouri K, Colebunders RL, et al. A comparison of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections in hospitalized patients in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. AIDS. 1990;4:443-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Esbjörnsson J, Månsson F, Kvist A, et al. Effect of HIV-2 infection on HIV-1 disease progression and mortality. AIDS. 2014;28:614-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Esbjörnsson J, Månsson F, Kvist A, et al. Inhibition of HIV-1 disease progression by contemporaneous HIV-2 infection. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:224-32.

PubMed Abstract»

Esbjörnsson J, Månsson F, Kvist A, et al. Long-term follow-up of HIV-2-related AIDS and mortality in Guinea-Bissau: a prospective open cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2018;S2352-3018(18)30254-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS, Hawes SE, Agne HD, et al. Lower levels of HIV RNA in semen in HIV-2 compared with HIV-1 infection: implications for differences in transmission. AIDS. 2006;20:895-900.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS. Changing HIV epidemics: what HIV-2 can teach us about ending HIV-1. AIDS. 2013;27:135-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Greenberg AE. Possible protective effect of HIV-2 against incident HIV-1 infection: review of available epidemiological and in vitro data. AIDS. 2001;15:2319-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Hawes SE, Sow PS, Stern JE, Critchlow CW, Gottlieb GS, Kiviat NB. Lower levels of HIV-2 than HIV-1 in the female genital tract: correlates and longitudinal assessment of viral shedding. AIDS. 2008;22:2517-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Kanki PJ, Travers KU, MBoup S, et al. Slower heterosexual spread of HIV-2 than HIV-1. Lancet. 1994;343:943-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC. Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: Lessons for viral immunopathogenesis. Rev Med Virol. 2013;23:221-40.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Poulsen AG, Aaby P, Larsen O, et al. 9-year HIV-2-associated mortality in an urban community in Bissau, west Africa. Lancet. 1997;349:911-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Prince PD, Matser A, van Tienen C, Whittle HC, Schim van der Loeff MF. Mortality rates in people dually infected with HIV-1/2 and those infected with either HIV-1 or HIV-2: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2014;28:549-58.

PubMed Abstract»

Schim van der Loeff MF, Aaby P, Aryioshi K, et al. HIV-2 does not protect against HIV-1 infection in a rural community in Guinea-Bissau. AIDS. 2001;15:2303-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Schim van der Loeff MF, Jaffar S, Aveika AA, et al. Mortality of HIV-1, HIV-2 and HIV-1/HIV-2 dually infected patients in a clinic-based cohort in The Gambia. AIDS. 2002;16:1775-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Simon F, Matheron S, Tamalet C, et al. Cellular and plasma viral load in patients infected with HIV-2. AIDS. 1993;7:1411-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Thiébaut R, Matheron S, Taieb A, Brun-Vezinet F, Chêne G, Autran B. Long-term nonprogressors and elite controllers in the ANRS CO5 HIV-2 cohort. AIDS. 2011;25:865-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Thomsen D, Erikstrup C, Jespersen S, et al. The influence of human leukocyte antigen-types on disease progression among HIV-2 infected patients in Guinea-Bissau. AIDS. 2018;32:721-728.

PubMed Abstract»

Travers K, Mboup S, Marlink R, et al. Natural protection against HIV-1 infection provided by HIV-2. Science. 1995;268:1612-5.

PubMed Abstract»

van der Loeff MF, Larke N, Kaye S, et al. Undetectable plasma viral load predicts normal survival in HIV-2-infected people in a West African village. Retrovirology. 2010;7:46.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

2014 Surveillance Case Definition for HIV-2 Infection

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

Diagnostic Testing for HIV-2

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Technical Update on HIV-1/2 Differentiation Assays. August 12, 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV-2 Infection Surveillance--United States, 1987-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:985-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Chang M, Gottlieb GS, Dragavon JA, et al. Validation for clinical use of a novel HIV-2 plasma RNA viral load assay using the Abbott m2000 platform. J Clin Virol. 2012;55:128-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Chang M, Wong AJ, Raugi DN, et al. Clinical validation of a novel diagnostic HIV-2 total nucleic acid qualitative assay using the Abbott m2000 platform: Implications for complementary HIV-2 nucleic acid testing for the CDC 4th generation HIV diagnostic testing algorithm. J Clin Virol. 2017;86:56-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Ekouévi DK, Avettand-Fènoël V, Tchounga BK, et al. Plasma HIV-2 RNA According to CD4 Count Strata among HIV-2-Infected Adults in the IeDEA West Africa Collaboration. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0129886.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernández McPhee C, Álvarez P, Prieto L, et al. HIV-1 infection using dried blood spots can be confirmed by Bio-Rad Geenius™ HIV 1/2 confirmatory assay. J Clin Virol. 2015;63:66-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS, Sow PS, Hawes SE, et al. Equal plasma viral loads predict a similar rate of CD4+ T cell decline in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1- and HIV-2-infected individuals from Senegal, West Africa. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:905-14.

PubMed Abstract»

Herssens N, Beelaert G, Fransen K. Discriminatory capacity between HIV-1 and HIV-2 of the new rapid confirmation assay Geenius. J Virol Methods. 2014;208:11-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Motomura K, Chen J, Hu WS. Genetic recombination between human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2, two distinct human lentiviruses. J Virol. 2008;82:1923-33.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Brien TR, George JR, Epstein JS, Holmberg SD, Schochetman G. Testing for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992;41:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

PubMed Abstract»

Torian LV, Eavey JJ, Punsalang AP, et al. HIV type 2 in New York City, 2000-2008. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:1334-42.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

Antiretroviral Susceptibility and Resistance

Andreatta K, Miller MD, White KL. HIV-2 antiviral potency and selection of drug resistance mutations by the integrase strand transfer inhibitor elvitegravir and NRTIs emtricitabine and tenofovir in vitro. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:367-74.

PubMed Abstract»

Bénard A, Damond F, Campa P, et al. Good response to lopinavir/ritonavir-containing antiretroviral regimens in antiretroviral-naive HIV-2-infected patients. AIDS. 2009;23:1171-3.

PubMed Abstract»

Borrego P, Calado R, Marcelino JM, et al. Baseline susceptibility of primary HIV-2 to entry inhibitors. Antivir Ther. 2012;17:565-70.

PubMed Abstract»

Borrego P, Taveira N. HIV-2 susceptibility to entry inhibitors. AIDS Rev. 2013;15:49-61.

PubMed Abstract»

Boyer PL, Sarafianos SG, Clark PK, Arnold E, Hughes SH. Why do HIV-1 and HIV-2 use different pathways to develop AZT resistance? PLoS Pathog. 2006;2:e10.

PubMed Abstract»

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Cavaco-Silva J, Aleixo MJ, Van Laethem K, et al. Mutations selected in HIV-2-infected patients failing a regimen including atazanavir. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68:190-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Damond F, Matheron S, Peytavin G, et al. Selection of K65R mutation in HIV-2-infected patients receiving tenofovir-containing regimen. Antivir Ther. 2004;9:635-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Desbois D, Roquebert B, Peytavin G, et al. In vitro phenotypic susceptibility of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 clinical isolates to protease inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:1545-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Descamps D, Peytavin G, Visseaux B, et al. Dolutegravir in HIV-2-Infected Patients With Resistant Virus to First-line Integrase Inhibitors From the French Named Patient Program. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1521-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Deuzing IP, Charpentier C, Wright DW, et al. Mutation V111I in HIV-2 reverse transcriptase increases the fitness of the nucleoside analogue-resistant K65R and Q151M viruses. J Virol. 2015;89:833-43.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS, Smith RA, Dia Badiane NM, et al. HIV-2 integrase variation in integrase inhibitor-naïve adults in Senegal, West Africa. PLoS One. 2011;6:e22204.

PubMed Abstract»

Le Hingrat Q, Collin G, Bachelard A, et al. Ibalizumab shows in-vitro activity against group A and group B HIV-2 clinical isolates. AIDS. 2022;36:1055-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Le Hingrat Q, Collin G, Lê M, et al. A new mechanism of resistance of HIV-2 to integrase inhibitors: a 5 amino-acids insertion in the integrase C-terminal domain. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;4:657-67.

PubMed Abstract»

Matheron S, Descamps D, Gallien S, et al. First-line Raltegravir/Emtricitabine/Tenofovir Combination in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 (HIV-2) Infection: A Phase 2, Noncomparative Trial (ANRS 159 HIV-2). Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:1161-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Menéndez-Arias L, Alvarez M. Antiretroviral therapy and drug resistance in human immunodeficiency virus type 2 infection. Antiviral Res. 2014;102:70-86.

PubMed Abstract»

Moranguinho I, Taveira N, Bártolo I. Antiretroviral Treatment of HIV-2 Infection: Available Drugs, Resistance Pathways, and Promising New Compounds. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:5905.

PubMed Abstract»

Nowicka-Sans B, Gong YF, McAuliffe B, et al. In vitro antiviral characteristics of HIV-1 attachment inhibitor BMS-626529, the active component of the prodrug BMS-663068. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:3498-507.

PubMed Abstract»

Ntemgwa ML, d'Aquin Toni T, Brenner BG, Camacho RJ, Wainberg MA. Antiretroviral drug resistance in human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:3611-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Pacheco P, Marques N, Rodrigues P, et al. Safety and Efficacy of Triple Therapy With Dolutegravir Plus 2 Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors in Treatment-Naive Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 Patients: Results From a 48-Week Phase 2 Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;77:740-8.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Peterson K, Ruelle J, Vekemans M, Siegal FP, Deayton JR, Colebunders R. The role of raltegravir in the treatment of HIV-2 infections: evidence from a case series. Antivir Ther. 2012;17:1097-100.

PubMed Abstract»

Poveda E, Rodes B, Toro C, Soriano V. Are fusion inhibitors active against all HIV variants? AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2004;20:347-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Raugi DN, Smith RA, Ba S, et al. Complex patterns of protease inhibitor resistance among antiretroviral treatment-experienced HIV-2 patients from Senegal: implications for second-line therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:2751-60.

PubMed Abstract»

Raugi DN, Smith RA, Gottlieb GS. Four Amino Acid Changes in HIV-2 Protease Confer Class-Wide Sensitivity to Protease Inhibitors. J Virol. 2016;90:1062-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith R, Raugi D, Nixon R, Seydi M, Margot N, Callebaut C, Gottlieb GS. Antiviral Activity of Lenacapavir Against HIV-2 Isolates. CROI 2023, 19-23 February 2023, Seattle, WA.

CROI»

Smith RA, Anderson DJ, Pyrak CL, Preston BD, Gottlieb GS. Antiretroviral drug resistance in HIV-2: three amino acid changes are sufficient for classwide nucleoside analogue resistance. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:1323-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Raugi DN, Kiviat NB, et al. Phenotypic susceptibility of HIV-2 to raltegravir: integrase mutations Q148R and N155H confer raltegravir resistance. AIDS. 2011;25:2235-41.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Raugi DN, Nixon RS, et al. Antiviral Activity of Lenacapavir Against HIV-2 Isolates and Drug-resistant HIV-2 Mutants. J Infect Dis. 2023 Dec 7. Online ahead of print.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Raugi DN, Pan C, et al. In vitro activity of dolutegravir against wild-type and integrase inhibitor-resistant HIV-2. Retrovirology. 2015;12:10.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Raugi DN, Pan C, et al. Three main mutational pathways in HIV-2 lead to high-level raltegravir and elvitegravir resistance: implications for emerging HIV-2 treatment regimens. PLoS One. 2012;7:e45372.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Raugi DN, Wu VH, et al. Comparison of the Antiviral Activity of Bictegravir against HIV-1 and HIV-2 Isolates and Integrase Inhibitor-Resistant HIV-2 Mutants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019;63(5). pii: e00014-19.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Wu VH, Zavala CG, et al. In Vitro Antiviral Activity of Cabotegravir against HIV-2. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62:e01299-18.

PubMed Abstract»

Witvrouw M, Pannecouque C, Van Laethem K, Desmyter J, De Clercq E, Vandamme AM. Activity of non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors against HIV-2 and SIV. AIDS. 1999;13:1477-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Zheng Y, Lambert C, Arendt V, Seguin-Devaux C. Virological and immunological outcomes of elvitegravir-based regimen in a treatment-naïve HIV-2-infected patient. AIDS. 2014;28:2329-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

HIV-2 Treatment Studies

Ba S, Raugi DN, Smith RA, et al. A Trial of a Single-tablet Regimen of Elvitegravir, Cobicistat, Emtricitabine, and Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate for the Initial Treatment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 Infection in a Resource-limited Setting: 48-Week Results From Senegal, West Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67:1588-94.

PubMed Abstract»

Matheron S, Pueyo S, Damond F, et al. Factors associated with clinical progression in HIV-2 infected-patients: the French ANRS cohort. AIDS. 2003;17:2593-601.

PubMed Abstract»

Zheng Y, Lambert C, Arendt V, Seguin-Devaux C. Virological and immunological outcomes of elvitegravir-based regimen in a treatment-naïve HIV-2-infected patient. AIDS. 2014;28:2329-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Module 6 » Lesson 8. HIV-2 Infection

HIV-2 Treatment Recommendations

PubMed Abstract»

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Charpentier C, Visseaux B, Bénard A, et al. Transmitted drug resistance in French HIV-2-infected patients. AIDS. 2013;27:1671-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Drylewicz J, Matheron S, Lazaro E, et al. Comparison of viro-immunological marker changes between HIV-1 and HIV-2-infected patients in France. AIDS. 2008;22:457-68.

PubMed Abstract»

Duarte F, Miranda AC, Peres S, et al. Transmitted drug resistance in drug-naïve HIV-2 infected patients. AIDS. 2016;30:1687-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ekouevi DK, Tchounga BK, Coffie PA, et al. Antiretroviral therapy response among HIV-2 infected patients: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:461.

PubMed Abstract»

Gilleece Y, Chadwick DR, Breuer J, et al. British HIV Association guidelines for antiretroviral treatment of HIV-2-positive individuals 2010. HIV Med. 2010;11:611-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Landman R, Damond F, Gerbe J, Brun-Vezinet F, Yeni P, Matheron S. Immunovirological and therapeutic follow-up of HIV-1/HIV-2-dually seropositive patients. AIDS. 2009;23:426-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Matheron S, Damond F, Benard A, et al. CD4 cell recovery in treated HIV-2 infected adults is lower than expected: results from the French ANRS CO5 HIV-2 cohort. AIDS 2006; 20:459–62.

PubMed Abstract»

Miranda A, Peres S, Moneti V, Azevedo T, Aldir I, Mansinho K. Clinical and laboratorial impact of antiretroviral therapy in a cohort of Portuguese patients chronically infected with HIV-2. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:19829.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Peterson K, Jallow S, Rowland-Jones SL, de Silva TI. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV-2 infection: recommendations for management in low-resource settings. AIDS Res Treat. 2011;2011:463704.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodés B, Toro C, Jiménez V, Soriano V. Viral response to antiretroviral therapy in a patient coinfected with HIV type 1 and type 2. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:e19-21.

PubMed Abstract»

Zheng Y, Lambert C, Arendt V, Seguin-Devaux C. Virological and immunological outcomes of elvitegravir-based regimen in a treatment-naïve HIV-2-infected patient. AIDS. 2014;28:2329-31.

PubMed Abstract»

Álvarez M, Nevot M, Mendieta J, Martínez MA, Menéndez-Arias L. Amino acid residues in HIV-2 reverse transcriptase that restrict the development of nucleoside analogue resistance through the excision pathway. J Biol Chem. 2018;293:2247-2259.

PubMed Abstract»

Bertine M, Gueudin M, Mélard A, et al. New Highly Sensitive Real-Time PCR Assay for HIV-2 Group A and Group B DNA Quantification. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55:2850-2857.

PubMed Abstract»

Bolan GA, Sparling PF, Wasserheit JN. The emerging threat of untreatable gonococcal infection. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:485-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Branson BM, Mermin J. Establishing the diagnosis of HIV infection: new tests and a new algorithm for the United States. J Clin Virol. 2011;52 Suppl 1:S3-4.

PubMed Abstract»

Brower ET, Bacha UM, Kawasaki Y, Freire E. Inhibition of HIV-2 protease by HIV-1 protease inhibitors in clinical use. Chem Biol Drug Des. 2008;71:298-305.

PubMed Abstract»

Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 Infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:780-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2015. Gonococcal infections. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64(No. RR-3):1-137.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Technical Update on HIV-1/2 Differentiation Assays. August 12, 2016.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Association of Public Health Laboratories. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Published June 27, 2014.

CDC»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV-2 Infection Surveillance--United States, 1987-2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:985-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection--United States, 2014. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2014;63:1-10.

PubMed Abstract»

Chang M, Steinmetzer K, Raugi DN, et al. Detection and differentiation of HIV-2 using the point-of-care Alere HIV-1/2 Detect nucleic acid test. J Clin Virol. 2017;97:22-25.

PubMed Abstract»

Charpentier C, Camacho R, Ruelle J, et al. HIV-2EU: supporting standardized HIV-2 drug resistance interpretation in Europe. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1654-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Charpentier C, Eholié S, Anglaret X, et al. Genotypic resistance profiles of HIV-2-treated patients in West Africa. AIDS. 2014;28:1161-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Charpentier C, Larrouy L, Collin G, et al. In-vitro phenotypic susceptibility of HIV-2 clinical isolates to the integrase inhibitor S/GSK1349572. AIDS. 2010;24:2753-5.

PubMed Abstract»

de Silva TI, Leligdowicz A, Carlson J, et al. HLA-associated polymorphisms in the HIV-2 capsid highlight key differences between HIV-1 and HIV-2 immune adaptation. AIDS. 2018;32:709-714.

PubMed Abstract»

Demeter LM, Ribaudo HJ, Erice A, et al. HIV-1 drug resistance in subjects with advanced HIV-1 infection in whom antiretroviral combination therapy is failing: a substudy of AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 388. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:552-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Ekouevi DK, Balestre E, Coffie PA, et al. Characteristics of HIV-2 and HIV-1/HIV-2 Dually Seropositive Adults in West Africa Presenting for Care and Antiretroviral Therapy: The IeDEA-West Africa HIV-2 Cohort Study. PLoS One. 2013;8:e66135.

PubMed Abstract»

Fernández McPhee C, Álvarez P, Prieto L, et al. HIV-1 infection using dried blood spots can be confirmed by Bio-Rad Geenius™ HIV 1/2 confirmatory assay. J Clin Virol. 2015;63:66-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Fischl MA, Ribaudo HJ, Collier AC, et al. A randomized trial of 2 different 4-drug antiretroviral regimens versus a 3-drug regimen, in advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:625-34.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS, Badiane NM, Hawes SE, et al. Emergence of multiclass drug-resistance in HIV-2 in antiretroviral-treated individuals in Senegal: implications for HIV-2 treatment in resouce-limited West Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:476-83.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS, Eholié SP, Nkengasong JN, et al. A call for randomized controlled trials of antiretroviral therapy for HIV-2 infection in West Africa. AIDS. 2008;22:2069-72.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS, Hawes SE, Kiviat NB, Sow PS. Differences in proviral DNA load between HIV-1-infected and HIV-2-infected patients. AIDS. 2008;22:1379-80.

PubMed Abstract»

Gottlieb GS. Changing HIV epidemics: what HIV-2 can teach us about ending HIV-1. AIDS. 2013;27:135-7.

PubMed Abstract»

Heitzinger K, Sow PS, Dia Badiane NM, et al. Trends of HIV-1, HIV-2 and dual infection in women attending outpatient clinics in Senegal, 1990-2009. Int J STD AIDS. 2012;23:710-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Herssens N, Beelaert G, Fransen K. Discriminatory capacity between HIV-1 and HIV-2 of the new rapid confirmation assay Geenius. J Virol Methods. 2014;208:11-5.

PubMed Abstract»

Jallow S, Kaye S, Alabi A, et al. Virological and immunological response to Combivir and emergence of drug resistance mutations in a cohort of HIV-2 patients in The Gambia. AIDS. 2006;20:1455-8.

PubMed Abstract»

Makvandi-Nejad S, Rowland-Jones S. How does the humoral response to HIV-2 infection differ from HIV-1 and can this explain the distinct natural history of infection with these two human retroviruses? Immunol Lett. 2015;163:69-75.

PubMed Abstract»

Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC. Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: Lessons for viral immunopathogenesis. Rev Med Virol. 2013;23:221-40.

PubMed Abstract»

O'Brien TR, George JR, Epstein JS, Holmberg SD, Schochetman G. Testing for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992;41:1-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Owen SM, Ellenberger D, Rayfield M, et al. Genetically divergent strains of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 use multiple coreceptors for viral entry. J Virol. 1998;72:5425-32.

PubMed Abstract»

HIV.gov»

Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al. Trends in HIV-2 Diagnoses and Use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 Differentiation Test - United States, 2010-2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69:63-6.

PubMed Abstract»

Raugi DN, Gottlieb GS, Sow PS, et al. HIV-1 outcompetes HIV-2 in dually infected Senegalese individuals with low CD4⁺ cell counts. AIDS. 2013;27:2441-50.

PubMed Abstract»

Reeves JD, Doms RW. Human immunodeficiency virus type 2. J Gen Virol. 2002;83:1253-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Rodés B, Sheldon J, Toro C, Jiménez V, Alvarez MA, Soriano V. Susceptibility to protease inhibitors in HIV-2 primary isolates from patients failing antiretroviral therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;57:709-13.

PubMed Abstract»

Roquebert B, Damond F, Collin G, et al. HIV-2 integrase gene polymorphism and phenotypic susceptibility of HIV-2 clinical isolates to the integrase inhibitors raltegravir and elvitegravir in vitro. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62:914-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Ross JDC, Brittain C, Cole M, et al. Gentamicin compared with ceftriaxone for the treatment of gonorrhoea (G-ToG): a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2019;393:2511-20.

PubMed Abstract»

Ruelle J, Roman F, Vandenbroucke AT, et al. Transmitted drug resistance, selection of resistance mutations and moderate antiretroviral efficacy in HIV-2: analysis of the HIV-2 Belgium and Luxembourg database. BMC Infect Dis. 2008;8:21.

PubMed Abstract»

Smith RA, Raugi DN, Wu VH, et al. The Nucleoside Analog BMS-986001 Shows Greater In Vitro Activity against HIV-2 than against HIV-1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:7437-46.

PubMed Abstract»

Styer LM, Miller TT, Parker MM. Validation and clinical use of a sensitive HIV-2 viral load assay that uses a whole virus internal control. J Clin Virol. 2013;58 Suppl 1:e127-33.

PubMed Abstract»

Triki D, Cano Contreras ME, Flatters D, et al. Analysis of the HIV-2 protease's adaptation to various ligands: characterization of backbone asymmetry using a structural alphabet. Sci Rep. 2018;8:710.

PubMed Abstract»

Tuaillon E, Gueudin M, Lemée V, et al. Phenotypic susceptibility to nonnucleoside inhibitors of virion-associated reverse transcriptase from different HIV types and groups. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;37:1543-9.

PubMed Abstract»

UNAIDS. Fact Sheet. 2023.

UNAIDS»

UNAIDS. HIV/AIDS. Data and statistics: 2022.

UNAIDS»

Visseaux B, Charpentier C, Collin G, et al. Cenicriviroc, a Novel CCR5 (R5) and CCR2 Antagonist, Shows In Vitro Activity against R5 Tropic HIV-2 Clinical Isolates. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0134904.

PubMed Abstract»

Visseaux B, Charpentier C, Hurtado-Nedelec M, et al. In vitro phenotypic susceptibility of HIV-2 clinical isolates to CCR5 inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:137-9.

PubMed Abstract»

Visseaux B, Charpentier C, Ozanne A, et al. Tropism distribution among antiretroviral-naive HIV-2-infected patients. AIDS. 2015;29:2209-12.

PubMed Abstract»

Visseaux B, Charpentier C, Rouard C, et al. HIV-2 X4 tropism is associated with lower CD4+ cell count in treatment-experienced patients. AIDS. 2014;28:2160-2.

PubMed Abstract»

Visseaux B, Damond F, Matheron S, Descamps D, Charpentier C. Hiv-2 molecular epidemiology. Infect Genet Evol. 2016;46:233-240.

PubMed Abstract»

Wittkop L, Arsandaux J, Trevino A, et al. CD4 cell count response to first-line combination ART in HIV-2+ patients compared with HIV-1+ patients: a multinational, multicohort European study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2017;72:2869-2878.

PubMed Abstract»

Witvrouw M, Pannecouque C, Switzer WM, Folks TM, De Clercq E, Heneine W. Susceptibility of HIV-2, SIV and SHIV to various anti-HIV-1 compounds: implications for treatment and postexposure prophylaxis. Antivir Ther. 2004;9:57-65.

PubMed Abstract»

Single-Tablet Regimens

Long-Acting Injectable Regimens

Capsid Inhibitors

Entry Inhibitors

Integrase Inhibitors (INSTI)

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTI)

Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTI)

Protease Inhibitors (PI)

Pharmacokinetic Enhancers

Self-Study Module3rd EditionCNE/CME Available

Lessons

Quick Reference3rd Edition

Lessons

Self-Study Module3rd EditionCNE/CME Available

Lessons

Quick Reference3rd Edition

Lessons

Self-Study Module3rd EditionCNE/CME Available

Lessons

Quick Reference3rd Edition

Lessons

Self-Study Module3rd EditionCNE/CME Available

Lessons

Quick Reference3rd Edition

Lessons

Self-Study Module3rd EditionCNE/CME Available

Lessons

Quick Reference3rd Edition

Lessons

Self-Study Module3rd EditionCNE/CME Available

Lessons

Quick Reference3rd Edition

Lessons

Instructions

Bibliography

Module 1. Screening and Diagnosis

Additional References

Module 2. Basic HIV Primary Care

Additional References

Additional References